Therapeutic compounds and uses thereof

ABSTRACT

Described herein are compounds of Formula (I) or Formula (VI), pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, and pharmaceutical compositions thereof. Also provided are particles (e.g., nanoparticles) comprising compounds of Formula (I) or Formula (VI) and pharmaceutical compositions thereof that are mucus penetrating. Methods of using the compounds or pharmaceutical compositions thereof for treating diseases are also provided.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/868,894 filed Jan. 11, 2018, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/139,107 filed Apr. 26, 2017, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,877,970, which is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/181,095 filed Feb. 14, 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,353,122, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Applications 61/765,487 filed Feb. 15, 2013 and 61/898,788 filed Nov. 1, 2013; the entire contents of all of which are incorporated by reference herein.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to therapeutic compounds and methods of treating proliferative diseases and diseases associated with anagiogenesis such as cancer and macular degeneration.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Growth factors play an important role in angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis, and vasculogenesis. Growth factors regulate angiogenesis in a variety of processes including embryonic development, wound healing, and several aspects of female reproductive function. Undesirable or pathological angiogenesis is associated with diseases including diabetic retinopathy, psoriasis, cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, atheroma, Kaposi's sarcoma, and hemangioma (Fan et al., 1995, Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 16: 57 66; Folkman, 1995, Nature Medicine 1: 27 31). Angiogenic ocular conditions represent the leading cause of irreversible vision loss in developed countries. In the United States, for example, retinopathy of prematurity, diabetic retinopathy, and age-related macular degeneration are the principal causes of blindness in infants, working age adults, and the elderly, respectively. Efforts have been developed to promote angiogenesis in treatment of these conditions (R. Roskoski Jr., Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology, 62 (2007), 179-213).

Therefore, there is a need for new therapeutic compounds for the treatment of diseases associated with aberrant signaling of growth factors, such as cancer, macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides compounds of Formulae (I)-(VI), pharmaceutical compositions thereof, and kits to treat proliferative diseases, ocular diseases, dermatological diseases, inflammation diseases, or metabolic diseases. The present invention also provides methods of using the inventive compounds, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, isotopically labeled derivatives, or prodrugs thereof, and compositions thereof, to study the inhibition of growth factor signaling and/or to treat and/or prevent proliferative diseases, ocular diseases, dermatological diseases, inflammation diseases, or metabolic diseases. The inventive compounds are particularly useful in treating diseases associated with angiogenesis.

In one aspect, the present invention provides compounds of Formula (I):

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₁, R₂, R₃, X, Y, Z, m, and n are as defined herein.

In one aspect, the present invention provides compounds of Formula (II):

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₁, R₂, R₃, R₄, X, Y, m, n, and j are as defined herein.

In one aspect, the present invention provides compounds of Formula (III):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₁, R₂, R₃, R₅, X, Y, m, n, and k are as defined herein.

In one aspect, the present invention provides compounds of Formula (IV):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₁, R₂, R₃, X, Y, Z₁, m, and n are as defined herein.

In one aspect, the present invention provides compounds of Formula (V):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₁, R₂, R₃, X, Y, e, f, m, and n are as defined herein.

In one aspect, the present invention provides compounds of Formula (VI):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₁, R₂, R₃, X, Y, Z, m, and n are as defined herein.

In another aspect, the present invention provides pharmaceutical compositions including a compound of Formula (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, and optionally a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions described herein include a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof. The pharmaceutical composition may be useful for treating proliferative diseases, ocular diseases, dermatological diseases, inflammation diseases, and metabolic diseases. In certain embodiments, the ocular disease being treated is macular degeneration.

In another aspect, the present invention provides pharmaceutical compositions including a compound of Formula (VI), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, and optionally a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions described herein include a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (VI), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof. The pharmaceutical composition may be useful for treating proliferative diseases, ocular diseases, dermatological diseases, inflammation diseases, and metabolic diseases. In certain embodiments, the ocular disease being treated is macular degeneration.

In some embodiments, the compounds described herein may be intended for delivery in a subject's tissues having mucus (e.g., eye, respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, genito-urinary tract), which is a viscoelastic and adhesive substance that traps most foreign objects (e.g., microorganisms, particles, dust). For effective drug delivery, compound or particles that are immobilized in the mucus are quickly eliminated by mucus clearance mechanisms; therefore, they are not able to effectively deliver the intended therapeutic effect. In these tissues, for the compound to effective, it must quickly penetrate the mucus and/or avoid mucus clearance mechanisms. Accordingly, modifying mucoadhesive compounds or particles containing compounds with a coating to reduce the mucoadhesiveness, and decreasing the size of the particles of compound may allow for efficient delivery and therapeutic effect.

In one aspect of the invention, the compounds described herein are formulated into mucus penetrating particles or mucus penetrating crystals (collectively, MPPs) suitable for administration (e.g., topical or inhalation) to tissues of the subject having mucus (e.g., eye, respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, genito-urinary tract). In certain embodiments, the inventive compounds are crystalline.

In another aspect, the present invention provides particles containing a compound described herein or particles comprising a compound described herein. In certain embodiments, the particles are mucus penetrating. The particles of the invention may include a coating surrounding a core. The core may contain primarily a compound of the invention, or the core may be a polymeric core with the compound encapsulated in the polymer. In certain embodiments, the inventive particles are nanoparticles (e.g., particles having an average diameter of at least about 10 nm and less than about 1 μm). The inventive particles may be useful in delivering the pharmaceutical agent to a subject. In certain embodiments, the particles of the invention are capable of delivering the pharmaceutical agent in or through mucus of a subject.

Another aspect of the invention relates to pharmaceutical compositions comprising an inventive compound and/or a plurality of inventive particles. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions are useful in delivering a pharmaceutical agent (e.g., the compound of the invention) to a subject.

In another aspect of the invention, the present invention provides pharmaceutical composition comprising a plurality of particles comprising (i) a core comprising a compound of the invention described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and (ii) a coating of a surface altering agent surrounding the core, wherein the surface altering agent is present on the outer surface of the core at a density of at least 0.01 surface altering agent per nm², and optionally, at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. In some embodiments, the surface altering agent is a triblock copolymer of the structure (hydrophilic block)-(hydrophobic block)-(hydrophilic block). In some aspects, the triblock copolymer is a PLURONIC or poloxamer.

In certain embodiments, the compound, particle, or pharmaceutical composition is formulated to be mucus penetrating.

In another aspect, the present invention provides methods of treating or preventing a disease by administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I). The diseases include proliferative diseases, ocular diseases (e.g., macular degeneration), dermatological diseases, inflammation diseases, and metabolic diseases.

In another aspect, the present invention provides methods of treating or preventing a disease by administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (VI). The diseases include proliferative diseases, ocular diseases (e.g., macular degeneration), dermatological diseases, inflammation diseases, and metabolic diseases.

In another aspect, the present invention provides kits comprising a compound of Formula (I) or (VI), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof. The kits of the invention may include a single dose or multiple doses of a compound of Formula (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof. The provided kits may be useful for the treatment of proliferative diseases, ocular diseases, dermatological diseases, inflammation diseases, or metabolic diseases. In certain embodiments, the kits described herein further include instructions for administering the compound of Formula (I) or (VI), or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, or the pharmaceutical composition thereof. The kits may also include packaging information describing the use or prescribing information for the subject or a health care professional. Such information may be required by a regulatory agency such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The kit may also optionally include a device for administration of the compound or composition, for example, a dropper for ocular administration or a syringe for parenteral administration.

The details of certain embodiments of the invention are set forth herein. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the Detailed Description, Figures, Examples, and Claims.

Definitions

Chemical Definitions

Definitions of specific functional groups and chemical terms are described in more detail below. The chemical elements are identified in accordance with the Periodic Table of the Elements, CAS version, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 75^(th) Ed., inside cover, and specific functional groups are generally defined as described therein. Additionally, general principles of organic chemistry, as well as specific functional moieties and reactivity, are described in Thomas Sorrell, Organic Chemistry, University Science Books, Sausalito, 1999; Smith and March, March's Advanced Organic Chemistry, 5^(th) Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 2001; Larock, Comprehensive Organic Transformations, VCH Publishers, Inc., New York, 1989; and Carruthers, Some Modern Methods of Organic Synthesis, 3^(rd) Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1987.

Compounds described herein can comprise one or more asymmetric centers, and thus can exist in various isomeric forms, e.g., enantiomers and/or diastereomers. For example, the compounds described herein can be in the form of an individual enantiomer, diastereomer or geometric isomer, or can be in the form of a mixture of stereoisomers, including racemic mixtures and mixtures enriched in one or more stereoisomer. Isomers can be isolated from mixtures by methods known to those skilled in the art, including chiral high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the formation and crystallization of chiral salts; or preferred isomers can be prepared by asymmetric syntheses. See, for example, Jacques et al., Enantiomers, Racemates and Resolutions (Wiley Interscience, New York, 1981); Wilen et al., Tetrahedron 33:2725 (1977); Eliel, Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds (McGraw-Hill, N Y, 1962); and Wilen, Tables of Resolving Agents and Optical Resolutions p. 268 (E. L. Eliel, Ed., Univ. of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, Ind. 1972). The invention additionally encompasses compounds described herein as individual isomers substantially free of other isomers, and alternatively, as mixtures of various isomers.

When a range of values is listed, it is intended to encompass each value and sub-range within the range. For example “C₁₋₆” is intended to encompass C₁, C₂, C₃, C₄, C₅, C₆, C₁₋₆, C₁₋₅, C₁₋₄, C₁₋₃, C₁₋₂, C₂₋₆, C₂₋₅, C₂₋₄, C₂₋₃, C₃₋₆, C₃₋₅, C₃₋₄, C₄₋₆, C₄₋₅, and C₅₋₆.

As used herein, a “hydrocarbon chain” refers to a substituted or unsubstituted divalent alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl group. A hydrocarbon chain includes at least one chain, each node (“carbon unit”) of which including at least one carbon atom between the two radicals of the hydrocarbon chain. For example, hydrocarbon chain —C^(A)H(C^(B)H₂C^(C)H₃)— includes only one carbon unit C^(A). The term “C_(x) hydrocarbon chain,” wherein x is a positive integer, refers to a hydrocarbon chain that includes x number of carbon unit(s) between the two radicals of the hydrocarbon chain. If there is more than one possible value of x, the smallest possible value of x is used for the definition of the hydrocarbon chain. For example, —CH(C₂H₅)— is a C₁ hydrocarbon chain, and

is a C₃ hydrocarbon chain. When a range of values is used, e.g., a C₁₋₆ hydrocarbon chain, the meaning of the range is as described herein. A hydrocarbon chain may be saturated (e.g., —(CH₂)₄—). A hydrocarbon chain may also be unsaturated and include one or more C═C and/or C≡C bonds anywhere in the hydrocarbon chain. For instance, —CH═CH—(CH₂)₂—, —CH₂—C≡C—CH₂—, and —C≡C—CH═CH— are all examples of a unsubstituted and unsaturated hydrocarbon chain. In certain embodiments, the hydrocarbon chain is unsubstituted (e.g., —(CH₂)₄—). In certain embodiments, the hydrocarbon chain is substituted (e.g., —CH(C₂H₅)— and —CF₂—). Any two substituents on the hydrocarbon chain may be joined to form an optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl ring. For instance,

are all examples of a hydrocarbon chain. In contrast, in certain embodiments

are not within the scope of the hydrocarbon chains described herein.

“Alkyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain or branched saturated hydrocarbon group having from 1 to 20 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₂₀ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 10 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₁₀ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 9 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₉ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 8 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₈ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 7 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₇ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 6 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₆ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 5 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₅ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 4 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₄ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 3 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₃ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 2 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₂ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 carbon atom (“C₁ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₆ alkyl”). Examples of C₁₋₆ alkyl groups include methyl (C₁), ethyl (C₂), n-propyl (C₃), isopropyl (C₃), n-butyl (C₄), tert-butyl (C₄), sec-butyl (C₄), iso-butyl (C₄), n-pentyl (C₅), 3-pentanyl (C₅), amyl (C₅), neopentyl (C₅), 3-methyl-2-butanyl (C₅), tertiary amyl (C₅), and n-hexyl (C₆). Additional examples of alkyl groups include n-heptyl (C₇), n-octyl (C₈), and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkyl group is independently optionally substituted, i.e., unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted alkyl”) or substituted (a “substituted alkyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the alkyl group is unsubstituted C₁₋₁₀ alkyl (e.g., —CH₃). In certain embodiments, the alkyl group is substituted C₁₋₁₀ alkyl.

“Alkenyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain or branched hydrocarbon group having from 2 to 20 carbon atoms, one or more carbon-carbon double bonds, and no triple bonds (“C₂₋₂₀ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 10 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₉ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₈ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₇ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₆ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₅ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₄ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₃ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 carbon atoms (“C₂ alkenyl”). The one or more carbon-carbon double bonds can be internal (such as in 2-butenyl) or terminal (such as in 1-butenyl). Examples of C₂₋₄ alkenyl groups include ethenyl (C₂), 1-propenyl (C₃), 2-propenyl (C₃), 1-butenyl (C₄), 2-butenyl (C₄), butadienyl (C₄), and the like. Examples of C₂₋₆ alkenyl groups include the aforementioned C₂₋₄ alkenyl groups as well as pentenyl (C₅), pentadienyl (C₅), hexenyl (C₆), and the like. Additional examples of alkenyl include heptenyl (C₇), octenyl (C₈), octatrienyl (C₈), and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkenyl group is independently optionally substituted, i.e., unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted alkenyl”) or substituted (a “substituted alkenyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the alkenyl group is unsubstituted C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl. In certain embodiments, the alkenyl group is substituted C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl.

“Alkynyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain or branched hydrocarbon group having from 2 to 20 carbon atoms, one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds, and optionally one or more double bonds (“C₂₋₂₀ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 10 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₉ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₈ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₇ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₆ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₅ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₄ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₃ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 carbon atoms (“C₂ alkynyl”). The one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds can be internal (such as in 2-butynyl) or terminal (such as in 1-butynyl). Examples of C₂₋₄ alkynyl groups include, without limitation, ethynyl (C₂), 1-propynyl (C₃), 2-propynyl (C₃), 1-butynyl (C₄), 2-butynyl (C₄), and the like. Examples of C₂₋₆ alkenyl groups include the aforementioned C₂₋₄ alkynyl groups as well as pentynyl (C₅), hexynyl (C₆), and the like. Additional examples of alkynyl include heptynyl (C₇), octynyl (C₈), and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkynyl group is independently optionally substituted, i.e., unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted alkynyl”) or substituted (a “substituted alkynyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the alkynyl group is unsubstituted C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl. In certain embodiments, the alkynyl group is substituted C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl.

“Carbocyclyl” or “carbocyclic” refers to a radical of a non-aromatic cyclic hydrocarbon group having from 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl”) and zero heteroatoms in the non-aromatic ring system. In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 8 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₈ carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₆ carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₆ carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 5 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C₅₋₁₀ carbocyclyl”). Exemplary C₃₋₆ carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, cyclopropyl (C₃), cyclopropenyl (C₃), cyclobutyl (C₄), cyclobutenyl (C₄), cyclopentyl (C₅), cyclopentenyl (C₅), cyclohexyl (C₆), cyclohexenyl (C₆), cyclohexadienyl (C₆), and the like. Exemplary C₃₋₈ carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, the aforementioned C₃₋₆ carbocyclyl groups as well as cycloheptyl (C₇), cycloheptenyl (C₇), cycloheptadienyl (C₇), cycloheptatrienyl (C₇), cyclooctyl (C₈), cyclooctenyl (C₈), bicyclo[2.2.1]heptanyl (C₇), bicyclo[2.2.2]octanyl (C₈), and the like. Exemplary C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, the aforementioned C₃₋₈ carbocyclyl groups as well as cyclononyl (C₉), cyclononenyl (C₉), cyclodecyl (C₁₀), cyclodecenyl (C₁₀), octahydro-1H-indenyl (C₉), decahydronaphthalenyl (C₁₀), spiro[4.5]decanyl (C₁₀), and the like. As the foregoing examples illustrate, in certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is either monocyclic (“monocyclic carbocyclyl”) or contains a fused, bridged, or spiro ring system such as a bicyclic system (“bicyclic carbocyclyl”) and can be saturated or partially unsaturated. “Carbocyclyl” also includes ring systems wherein the carbocyclic ring, as defined above, is fused to one or more aryl or heteroaryl groups wherein the point of attachment is on the carbocyclic ring, and in such instances, the number of carbons continue to designate the number of carbons in the carbocyclic ring system. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a carbocyclyl group is independently optionally substituted, i.e., unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted carbocyclyl”) or substituted (a “substituted carbocyclyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is unsubstituted C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is a substituted C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl. In some embodiments, “carbocyclyl” is a monocyclic, saturated carbocyclyl group having from 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₁₀ cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 3 to 8 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₈ cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 3 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 5 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₅₋₆ cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 5 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C₅₋₁₀ cycloalkyl”). Examples of C₅₋₆ cycloalkyl groups include cyclopentyl (C₅) and cyclohexyl (C₅). Examples of C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl groups include the aforementioned C₅₋₆ cycloalkyl groups as well as cyclopropyl (C₃) and cyclobutyl (C₄). Examples of C₃₋₈ cycloalkyl groups include the aforementioned C₃₋₆ cycloalkyl groups as well as cycloheptyl (C₇) and cyclooctyl (C₈). Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a cycloalkyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted cycloalkyl”) or substituted (a “substituted cycloalkyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the cycloalkyl group is unsubstituted C₃₋₁₀ cycloalkyl. In certain embodiments, the cycloalkyl group is substituted C₃₋₁₀ cycloalkyl.

“Heterocyclyl” or “heterocyclic” refers to a radical of a 3- to 10-membered non-aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1 to 4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, boron, phosphorus, and silicon (“3-10 membered heterocyclyl”). In certain embodiments, the heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. In heterocyclyl groups that contain one or more nitrogen atoms, the point of attachment can be a carbon or nitrogen atom, as valency permits. A heterocyclyl group can either be monocyclic (“monocyclic heterocyclyl”) or a fused, bridged or spiro ring system such as a bicyclic system (“bicyclic heterocyclyl”), and can be saturated or partially unsaturated. Heterocyclyl bicyclic ring systems can include one or more heteroatoms in one or both rings. “Heterocyclyl” also includes ring systems wherein the heterocyclic ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl groups wherein the point of attachment is either on the carbocyclyl or heterocyclic ring, or ring systems wherein the heterocyclic ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl or heteroaryl groups, wherein the point of attachment is on the heterocyclic ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members continue to designate the number of ring members in the heterocyclic ring system. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of heterocyclyl is independently optionally substituted, i.e., unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted heterocyclyl”) or substituted (a “substituted heterocyclyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heterocyclyl group is unsubstituted 3-10 membered heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, the heterocyclyl group is substituted 3-10 membered heterocyclyl. In some embodiments, a heterocyclyl group is a 5-10 membered non-aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, boron, phosphorus, and silicon (“5-10 membered heterocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a heterocyclyl group is a 5-8 membered non-aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-8 membered heterocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a heterocyclyl group is a 5-6 membered non-aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-6 membered heterocyclyl”). In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heterocyclyl has 1-3 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heterocyclyl has 1-2 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heterocyclyl has one ring heteroatom selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

Exemplary 3-membered heterocyclyl groups containing one heteroatom include, without limitation, azirdinyl, oxiranyl, and thiorenyl. Exemplary 4-membered heterocyclyl groups containing one heteroatom include, without limitation, azetidinyl, oxetanyl, and thietanyl. Exemplary 5-membered heterocyclyl groups containing one heteroatom include, without limitation, tetrahydrofuranyl, dihydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothiophenyl, dihydrothiophenyl, pyrrolidinyl, dihydropyrrolyl, and pyrrolyl-2,5-dione. Exemplary 5-membered heterocyclyl groups containing two heteroatoms include, without limitation, dioxolanyl, oxasulfuranyl, disulfuranyl, and oxazolidin-2-one. Exemplary 5-membered heterocyclyl groups containing three heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazolinyl, oxadiazolinyl, and thiadiazolinyl. Exemplary 6-membered heterocyclyl groups containing one heteroatom include, without limitation, piperidinyl, tetrahydropyranyl, dihydropyridinyl, and thianyl. Exemplary 6-membered heterocyclyl groups containing two heteroatoms include, without limitation, piperazinyl, morpholinyl, dithianyl, and dioxanyl. Exemplary 6-membered heterocyclyl groups containing two heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazinanyl. Exemplary 7-membered heterocyclyl groups containing one heteroatom include, without limitation, azepanyl, oxepanyl, and thiepanyl. Exemplary 8-membered heterocyclyl groups containing one heteroatom include, without limitation, azocanyl, oxecanyl, and thiocanyl. Exemplary 5-membered heterocyclyl groups fused to a C₆ aryl ring (also referred to herein as a 5,6-bicyclic heterocyclic ring) include, without limitation, indolinyl, isoindolinyl, dihydrobenzofuranyl, dihydrobenzothienyl, benzoxazolinonyl, and the like. Exemplary 6-membered heterocyclyl groups fused to an aryl ring (also referred to herein as a 6,6-bicyclic heterocyclic ring) include, without limitation, tetrahydroquinolinyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl, and the like.

“Aryl” refers to a radical of a monocyclic or polycyclic (e.g., bicyclic or tricyclic) 4n+2 aromatic ring system (e.g., having 6, 10, or 14 t electrons shared in a cyclic array) having 6-14 ring carbon atoms and zero heteroatoms in the aromatic ring system (“C₆₋₁₄ aryl”). In some embodiments, an aryl group has six ring carbon atoms (“C₆ aryl”; e.g., phenyl). In some embodiments, an aryl group has ten ring carbon atoms (“C₁₀ aryl”; e.g., naphthyl such as 1-naphthyl and 2-naphthyl). In some embodiments, an aryl group has fourteen ring carbon atoms (“C₁₄ aryl”; e.g., anthracyl). “Aryl” also includes ring systems wherein the aryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl groups wherein the radical or point of attachment is on the aryl ring, and in such instances, the number of carbon atoms continue to designate the number of carbon atoms in the aryl ring system. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an aryl group is independently optionally substituted, i.e., unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted aryl”) or substituted (a “substituted aryl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the aryl group is unsubstituted C₆₋₁₄ aryl. In certain embodiments, the aryl group is substituted C₆₋₁₄ aryl.

“Arylalkyl” is a subset of alkyl and aryl, as defined herein, and refers to an optionally substituted alkyl group substituted by an optionally substituted aryl group. In certain embodiments, the aralkyl is optionally substituted benzyl. In certain embodiments, the aralkyl is benzyl. In certain embodiments, the aralkyl is optionally substituted phenethyl. In certain embodiments, the aralkyl is phenethyl.

“Heteroaryl” refers to a radical of a 5-10 membered monocyclic or bicyclic 4n+2 aromatic ring system (e.g., having 6 or 10 t electrons shared in a cyclic array) having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-10 membered heteroaryl”). In heteroaryl groups that contain one or more nitrogen atoms, the point of attachment can be a carbon or nitrogen atom, as valency permits. Heteroaryl bicyclic ring systems can include one or more heteroatoms in one or both rings. “Heteroaryl” includes ring systems wherein the heteroaryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl groups wherein the point of attachment is on the heteroaryl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members continue to designate the number of ring members in the heteroaryl ring system. “Heteroaryl” also includes ring systems wherein the heteroaryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl groups wherein the point of attachment is either on the aryl or heteroaryl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members designates the number of ring members in the fused (aryl/heteroaryl) ring system. Bicyclic heteroaryl groups wherein one ring does not contain a heteroatom (e.g., indolyl, quinolinyl, carbazolyl, and the like) the point of attachment can be on either ring, i.e., either the ring bearing a heteroatom (e.g., 2-indolyl) or the ring that does not contain a heteroatom (e.g., 5-indolyl).

In some embodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5-10 membered aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-10 membered heteroaryl”). In some embodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5-8 membered aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-8 membered heteroaryl”). In some embodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5-6 membered aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-6 membered heteroaryl”). In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heteroaryl has 1-3 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heteroaryl has 1-2 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heteroaryl has 1 ring heteroatom selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a heteroaryl group is independently optionally substituted, i.e., unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted heteroaryl”) or substituted (a “substituted heteroaryl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heteroaryl group is unsubstituted 5-14 membered heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, the heteroaryl group is substituted 5-14 membered heteroaryl.

Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing one heteroatom include, without limitation, pyrrolyl, furanyl, and thiophenyl. Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing two heteroatoms include, without limitation, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, and isothiazolyl. Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing three heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazolyl, oxadiazolyl, and thiadiazolyl. Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing four heteroatoms include, without limitation, tetrazolyl. Exemplary 6-membered heteroaryl groups containing one heteroatom include, without limitation, pyridinyl. Exemplary 6-membered heteroaryl groups containing two heteroatoms include, without limitation, pyridazinyl, pyrimidinyl, and pyrazinyl. Exemplary 6-membered heteroaryl groups containing three or four heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazinyl and tetrazinyl, respectively. Exemplary 7-membered heteroaryl groups containing one heteroatom include, without limitation, azepinyl, oxepinyl, and thiepinyl. Exemplary 5,6-bicyclic heteroaryl groups include, without limitation, indolyl, isoindolyl, indazolyl, benzotriazolyl, benzothiophenyl, isobenzothiophenyl, benzofuranyl, benzoisofuranyl, benzimidazolyl, benzoxazolyl, benzisoxazolyl, benzoxadiazolyl, benzthiazolyl, benzisothiazolyl, benzthiadiazolyl, indolizinyl, and purinyl. Exemplary 6,6-bicyclic heteroaryl groups include, without limitation, naphthyridinyl, pteridinyl, quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl, cinnolinyl, quinoxalinyl, phthalazinyl, and quinazolinyl.

“Heteroaralkyl” is a subset of alkyl and heteroaryl, as defined herein, and refers to an optionally substituted alkyl group substituted by an optionally substituted heteroaryl group.

“Partially unsaturated” refers to a group that includes at least one double or triple bond. A “partially unsaturated” ring system is further intended to encompass rings having multiple sites of unsaturation but is not intended to include aromatic groups (e.g., aryl or heteroaryl groups) as herein defined. Likewise, “saturated” refers to a group that does not contain a double or triple bond, i.e., contains all single bonds.

Alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl groups, as defined herein, which are divalent bridging groups are further referred to using the suffix -ene, e.g., alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene, carbocyclylene, heterocyclylene, arylene, and heteroarylene.

As used herein, the term “optionally substituted” refers to a substituted or unsubstituted moiety.

Alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl groups, as defined herein, are optionally substituted (e.g., “substituted” or “unsubstituted” alkyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” alkenyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” alkynyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” carbocyclyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” heterocyclyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” aryl or “substituted” or “unsubstituted” heteroaryl group). In general, the term “substituted”, whether preceded by the term “optionally” or not, means that at least one hydrogen present on a group (e.g., a carbon or nitrogen atom) is replaced with a permissible substituent, e.g., a substituent which upon substitution results in a stable compound, e.g., a compound which does not spontaneously undergo transformation such as by rearrangement, cyclization, elimination, or other reaction. Unless otherwise indicated, a “substituted” group has a substituent at one or more substitutable positions of the group, and when more than one position in any given structure is substituted, the substituent is either the same or different at each position. The term “substituted” is contemplated to include substitution with all permissible substituents of organic compounds, any of the substituents described herein that results in the formation of a stable compound. The present invention contemplates any and all such combinations in order to arrive at a stable compound. For purposes of this invention, heteroatoms such as nitrogen may have hydrogen substituents and/or any suitable substituent as described herein which satisfy the valencies of the heteroatoms and results in the formation of a stable moiety.

Exemplary carbon atom substituents include, but are not limited to, halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —N₃, —SO₂H, —SO₃H, —OH, —OR^(aa), —ON(R^(bb))₂, —N(R^(bb))₂, —N(R^(bb))₃ ⁺X⁻, —N(OR^(cc))R^(bb), —SH, —SR^(aa), —SSR^(cc), —C(═O)R^(aa), —CO₂H, —CHO, —C(OR^(cc))₂, —CO₂R^(aa), —OC(═O)R^(aa), —OCO₂R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —OC(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —NR^(bb)C(═O)R^(aa), —NR^(bb)CO₂R^(aa), —NR^(bb)C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa), —OC(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —OC(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —OC(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —NR^(bb)C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)NR^(bb)SO₂R^(aa), —NR^(bb)SO₂R^(aa), —SO₂N(R^(bb))₂, —SO₂R^(aa), —SO₂OR^(aa), —OSO₂R^(aa), —S(═O)R^(aa), —OS(═O)R^(aa), —Si(R^(aa))₃, —OSi(R^(aa))₃ —C(═S)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)SR^(aa), —C(═S)SR^(aa), —SC(═S)SR^(aa), —SC(═O)SR^(aa), —OC(═O)SR^(aa), —SC(═O)OR^(aa), —SC(═O)R^(aa), —P(═O)₂R^(aa), —OP(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —OP(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —OP(═O)(OR)₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(bb))₂, —OP(═O)₂N(R^(bb))₂, —P(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, —OP(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, —NR^(bb)P(═O)(OR^(cc))₂, —NR^(bb)P(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, —P(R_(cc))₂, —P(R)₃, —OP(R^(cc))₂, —OP(R^(cc))₃, —B(R^(aa))₂, —B(OR^(cc))₂, —BR^(aa)(OR^(cc)), C₁₋₁₀ alkyl, C₁₋₁₀ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups;

or two geminal hydrogens on a carbon atom are replaced with the group ═O, ═S, ═NN(R^(bb))₂, ═NNR^(bb)C(═O)R^(aa), ═NNR^(bb)C(═O)OR^(aa), ═NNR^(bb)S(═O)₂R^(aa), ═NR^(bb), or ═NOR^(cc);

each instance of R^(aa) is, independently, selected from C₁₋₁₀ alkyl, C₁₋₁₀ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two R^(aa) groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups;

each instance of R^(bb) is, independently, selected from hydrogen, —OH, —OR^(aa), —N(R)₂, —CN, —C(═O)R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R)₂, —CO₂R^(aa), —SO₂R^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂R^(cc), —SO₂OR^(cc), —SOR^(aa), —C(═S)N(R^(cc))₂, —C(═O)SR^(cc), —C(═S)SR^(cc), —P(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —P(═O)₂N(R)₂, —P(═O)(NR^(cc))₂, C₁₋₁₀ alkyl, C₁₋₁₀ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two R^(bb) groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups;

each instance of R^(cc) is, independently, selected from hydrogen, C₁₋₁₀ alkyl, C₁₋₁₀ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two R^(cc) groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups;

each instance of R^(dd) is, independently, selected from halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —N₃, —SO₂H, —SO₃H, —OH, —OR^(ee), —ON(R^(ff))₂, —N(R^(ff))₂, —N(R^(ff))₃ ⁺X⁻, —N(OR^(ee))R^(ff), —SH, —SR^(ee), —SSR^(ee), —C(═O)R^(ee), —CO₂H, —CO₂R^(ee), —OC(═O)R^(ee), —OCO₂R^(ee), —C(═O)N(R^(ff))₂, —OC(═O)N(R^(ff))₂, —NR^(ff)C(═O)R^(ee), —NR^(ff)CO₂R^(ee), —NR^(ff)C(═O)N(R^(ff))₂, —C(═NR^(ff))OR^(ee), —OC(═NR^(ff))R^(ee), —OC(═NR^(ff))OR^(ee), —C(═NR^(ff))N(R^(ff))₂, —OC(═NR^(ff))N(R^(ff))₂, —NR^(ff)C(═NR^(ff))N(R^(ff))₂, —NR^(ff)SO₂R^(ee), —SO₂N(R^(ff))₂, —SO₂R^(ee), —SO₂OR^(ee), —OSO₂R^(ee), —S(═O)R^(ee), —Si(R^(ee))₃, —OSi(R^(ee))₃, —C(═S)N(R^(ff))₂, —C(═O)SR^(ee), —C(═S)SR^(ee), —SC(═S)SR^(ee), —P(═O)₂R^(ee), —P(═O)(R^(ee))₂, —OP(═O)(R^(ee))₂, —OP(═O)(OR^(ee))₂, C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₆ alkenyl, C₂₋₆ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₀ aryl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(gg) groups, or two geminal R^(dd) substituents can be joined to form ═O or ═S;

each instance of R^(ee) is, independently, selected from C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₆ alkenyl, C₂₋₆ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, C₆₋₁₀ aryl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, and 3-10 membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(gg) groups;

each instance of R^(ff) is, independently, selected from hydrogen, C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₆ alkenyl, C₂₋₆ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₀ aryl and 5-10 membered heteroaryl, or two R^(ff) groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(gg) groups; and

each instance of R^(gg) is, independently, halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —N₃, —SO₂H, —SO₃H, —OH, —OC₁₋₆ alkyl, —ON(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₃ ⁺X⁻, —NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂ ⁺X⁻, —NH₂(C₁₋₆ alkyl)⁺X⁻, —NH₃ ⁺X⁻, —N(OC₁₋₆ alkyl)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —N(OH)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —NH(OH), —SH, —SC₁₋₆ alkyl, —SS(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —C(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —CO₂H, —CO₂(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —OC(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —OCO₂(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —C(═O)NH₂, —C(═O)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —OC(═O)NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —NHC(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)C(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —NHCO₂(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —NHC(═O)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —NHC(═O)NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —NHC(═O)NH₂, —C(═NH)O(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —OC(═NH)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —OC(═NH)OC₁₋₆ alkyl, —C(═NH)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —C(═NH)NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —C(═NH)NH₂, —OC(═NH)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —OC(NH)NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —OC(NH)NH₂, —NHC(NH)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —NHC(═NH)NH₂, —NHSO₂(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —SO₂N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —SO₂NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —SO₂NH₂, —SO₂C₁₋₆ alkyl, —SO₂OC₁₋₆ alkyl, —OSO₂C₁₋₆ alkyl, —SOC₁₋₆ alkyl, —Si(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₃, —OSi(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₃-C(═S)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, C(═S)NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl), C(═S)NH₂, —C(═O)S(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —C(═S)SC₁₋₆ alkyl, —SC(═S)SC₁₋₆ alkyl, —P(═O)₂(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —P(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —OP(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —OP(═O)(OC₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁-6 perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₆ alkenyl, C₂₋₆ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, C₆₋₁₀ aryl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl; or two geminal R^(gg) substituents can be joined to form ═O or ═S; wherein X⁻is a counterion.

A “counterion” or “anionic counterion” is a negatively charged group associated with a cationic quaternary amino group in order to maintain electrostatic neutrality. Exemplary counterions include halide ions (e.g., F⁻, Cl⁻, Br⁻, I⁻), NO₃ ⁻, ClO₄ ⁻, OH⁻, H₂PO₄ ⁻, HSO₄ ⁻, sulfonate ions (e.g., methansulfonate, trifluoromethanesulfonate, p-toluenesulfonate, benzenesulfonate, 10-camphor sulfonate, naphthalene-2-sulfonate, naphthalene-1-sulfonic acid-5-sulfonate, ethan-1-sulfonic acid-2-sulfonate, and the like), and carboxylate ions (e.g., acetate, ethanoate, propanoate, benzoate, glycerate, lactate, tartrate, glycolate, and the like).

“Halo” or “halogen” refers to fluorine (fluoro, —F), chlorine (chloro, —Cl), bromine (bromo, —Br), or iodine (iodo, —I).

“Acyl” as used herein refers to a moiety selected from the group consisting of —C(═O)R^(aa), —CHO, —CO₂R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)NR^(bb)SO₂R^(aa), —C(═S)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)SR^(aa), and —C(═S)SR^(aa), wherein R^(aa) and R^(bb) are as defined herein.

Nitrogen atoms can be substituted or unsubstituted as valency permits, and include primary, secondary, tertiary, and quarternary nitrogen atoms. Exemplary nitrogen atom substituents include, but are not limited to, hydrogen, —OH, —OR^(aa), —N(R^(cc))₂, —CN, —C(═O)R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(cc))₂, —CO₂R^(aa), —SO₂R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂R—, —SO₂OR^(cc), —SOR^(aa), —C(═S)N(R^(cc))₂, —C(═O)SR^(cc), —C(═S)SR^(cc), —P(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(cc))₂, —P(═O)(NR^(cc))₂, C₁₋₁₀ alkyl, C₁₋₁₀ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two R^(cc) groups attached to a nitrogen atom are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups, and wherein R^(aa), R^(bb), R^(cc), and R^(dd) are as defined above.

In certain embodiments, the substituent present on a nitrogen atom is a nitrogen protecting group (also referred to as an amino protecting group). Nitrogen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, —OH, —OR^(aa), —N(R^(cc))₂, —C(═O)R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(cc))₂, —CO₂R^(aa), —SO₂R^(aa), —C(═NR)R^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂R^(cc), —SO₂OR^(cc), —SOR^(aa), —C(═S)N(R^(cc))₂, —C(═O)SR^(cc), —C(═S)SR^(cc), C₁₋₁₀ alkyl (e.g., aralkyl, heteroaralkyl), C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl groups, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aralkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups, and wherein R^(aa), R^(bb), R^(cc) and R^(dd) are as defined herein. Nitrogen protecting groups are well known in the art and include those described in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3^(rd) edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference.

For example, nitrogen protecting groups such as amide groups (e.g., —C(═O)R^(aa)) include, but are not limited to, formamide, acetamide, chloroacetamide, trichloroacetamide, trifluoroacetamide, phenylacetamide, 3-phenylpropanamide, picolinamide, 3-pyridylcarboxamide, N-benzoylphenylalanyl derivative, benzamide, p-phenylbenzamide, o-nitophenylacetamide, o-nitrophenoxyacetamide, acetoacetamide, (N′-dithiobenzyloxyacylamino)acetamide, 3-(p-hydroxyphenyl)propanamide, 3-(o-nitrophenyl)propanamide, 2-methyl-2-(o-nitrophenoxy)propanamide, 2-methyl-2-(o-phenylazophenoxy)propanamide, 4-chlorobutanamide, 3-methyl-3-nitrobutanamide, o-nitrocinnamide, N-acetylmethionine derivative, o-nitrobenzamide, and o-(benzoyloxymethyl)benzamide.

Nitrogen protecting groups such as carbamate groups (e.g., —C(═O)OR^(aa)) include, but are not limited to, methyl carbamate, ethyl carbamante, 9-fluorenylmethyl carbamate (Fmoc), 9-(2-sulfo)fluorenylmethyl carbamate, 9-(2,7-dibromo)fluoroenylmethyl carbamate, 2,7-di-t-butyl-[9-(10,10-dioxo-10,10,10,10-tetrahydrothioxanthyl)]methyl carbamate (DBD-Tmoc), 4-methoxyphenacyl carbamate (Phenoc), 2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbamate (Troc), 2-trimethylsilylethyl carbamate (Teoc), 2-phenylethyl carbamate (hZ), 1-(1-adamantyl)-1l-methylethyl carbamate (Adpoc), 1,1-dimethyl-2-haloethyl carbamate, 1,1-dimethyl-2,2-dibromoethyl carbamate (DB-t-BOC), 1,1-dimethyl-2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbamate (TCBOC), 1-methyl-1-(4-biphenylyl)ethyl carbamate (Bpoc), 1-(3,5-di-t-butylphenyl)-1-methylethyl carbamate (t-Bumeoc), 2-(2′- and 4′-pyridyl)ethyl carbamate (Pyoc), 2-(N,N-dicyclohexylcarboxamido)ethyl carbamate, t-butyl carbamate (BOC), 1-adamantyl carbamate (Adoc), vinyl carbamate (Voc), allyl carbamate (Alloc), 1-isopropylallyl carbamate (Ipaoc), cinnamyl carbamate (Coc), 4-nitrocinnamyl carbamate (Noc), 8-quinolyl carbamate, N-hydroxypiperidinyl carbamate, alkyldithio carbamate, benzyl carbamate (Cbz), p-methoxybenzyl carbamate (Moz), p-nitobenzyl carbamate, p-bromobenzyl carbamate, p-chlorobenzyl carbamate, 2,4-dichlorobenzyl carbamate, 4-methylsulfinylbenzyl carbamate (Msz), 9-anthrylmethyl carbamate, diphenylmethyl carbamate, 2-methylthioethyl carbamate, 2-methylsulfonylethyl carbamate, 2-(p-toluenesulfonyl)ethyl carbamate, [2-(1,3-dithianyl)]methyl carbamate (Dmoc), 4-methylthiophenyl carbamate (Mtpc), 2,4-dimethylthiophenyl carbamate (Bmpc), 2-phosphonioethyl carbamate (Peoc), 2-triphenylphosphonioisopropyl carbamate (Ppoc), 1,1-dimethyl-2-cyanoethyl carbamate, m-chloro-p-acyloxybenzyl carbamate, p-(dihydroxyboryl)benzyl carbamate, 5-benzisoxazolyl methyl carbamate, 2-(trifluoromethyl)-6-chromonylmethyl carbamate (Tcroc), m-nitrophenyl carbamate, 3,5-dimethoxybenzyl carbamate, o-nitrobenzyl carbamate, 3,4-dimethoxy-6-nitrobenzyl carbamate, phenyl(o-nitrophenyl)methyl carbamate, t-amyl carbamate, S-benzyl thiocarbamate, p-cyanobenzyl carbamate, cyclobutyl carbamate, cyclohexyl carbamate, cyclopentyl carbamate, cyclopropylmethyl carbamate, p-decyloxybenzyl carbamate, 2,2-dimethoxyacylvinyl carbamate, o-(N,N-dimethylcarboxamido) benzyl carbamate, 1,1-dimethyl-3-(N,N-dimethylcarboxamido)propyl carbamate, 1,1-dimethylpropynyl carbamate, di(2-pyridyl)methyl carbamate, 2-furanylmethyl carbamate, 2-iodoethyl carbamate, isoborynl carbamate, isobutyl carbamate, isonicotinyl carbamate, p-(p′-methoxyphenylazo) benzyl carbamate, 1-methylcyclobutyl carbamate, 1-methylcyclohexyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-cyclopropylmethyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-(3,5-dimethoxyphenyl)ethyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-(p-phenylazophenyl)ethyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-phenylethyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-(4-pyridyl)ethyl carbamate, phenyl carbamate, p-(phenylazo)benzyl carbamate, 2,4,6-tri-t-butylphenyl carbamate, 4-(trimethylammonium)benzyl carbamate, and 2,4,6-trimethylbenzyl carbamate.

Nitrogen protecting groups such as sulfonamide groups (e.g., —S(═O)₂R^(aa)) include, but are not limited to, p-toluenesulfonamide (Ts), benzenesulfonamide, 2,3,6,-trimethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mtr), 2,4,6-trimethoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mtb), 2,6-dimethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Pme), 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mte), 4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mbs), 2,4,6-trimethylbenzenesulfonamide (Mts), 2,6-dimethoxy-4-methylbenzenesulfonamide (iMds), 2,2,5,7,8-pentamethylchroman-6-sulfonamide (Pmc), methanesulfonamide (Ms), P-trimethylsilylethanesulfonamide (SES), 9-anthracenesulfonamide, 4-(4′,8′-dimethoxynaphthylmethyl)benzenesulfonamide (DNMBS), benzylsulfonamide, trifluoromethylsulfonamide, and phenacylsulfonamide.

Other nitrogen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, phenothiazinyl-(10)-acyl derivative, N′-p-toluenesulfonylaminoacyl derivative, N′-phenylaminothioacyl derivative, N-benzoylphenylalanyl derivative, N-acetylmethionine derivative, 4,5-diphenyl-3-oxazolin-2-one, N-phthalimide, N-dithiasuccinimide (Dts), N-2,3-diphenylmaleimide, N-2,5-dimethylpyrrole, N-1,1,4,4-tetramethyldisilylazacyclopentane adduct (STABASE), 5-substituted 1,3-dimethyl-1,3,5-triazacyclohexan-2-one, 5-substituted 1,3-dibenzyl-1,3,5-triazacyclohexan-2-one, 1-substituted 3,5-dinitro-4-pyridone, N-methylamine, N-allylamine, N-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy]methylamine (SEM), N-3-acetoxypropylamine, N-(1-isopropyl-4-nitro-2-oxo-3-pyroolin-3-yl)amine, quaternary ammonium salts, N-benzylamine, N-di(4-methoxyphenyl)methylamine, N-5-dibenzosuberylamine, N-triphenylmethylamine (Tr), N-[(4-methoxyphenyl)diphenylmethyl]amine (MMTr), N-9-phenylfluorenylamine (PhF), N-2,7-dichloro-9-fluorenylmethyleneamine, N-ferrocenylmethylamino (Fcm), N-2-picolylamino N′-oxide, N-1,1-dimethylthiomethyleneamine, N-benzylideneamine, N-p-methoxybenzylideneamine, N-diphenylmethyleneamine, N-[(2-pyridyl)mesityl]methyleneamine, N—(N′,N′-dimethylaminomethylene)amine, N,N′-isopropylidenediamine, N-p-nitrobenzylideneamine, N-salicylideneamine, N-5-chlorosalicylideneamine, N-(5-chloro-2-hydroxyphenyl)phenylmethyleneamine, N-cyclohexylideneamine, N-(5,5-dimethyl-3-oxo-1-cyclohexenyl)amine, N-borane derivative, N-diphenylborinic acid derivative, N-[phenyl(pentaacylchromium- or tungsten)acyl]amine, N-copper chelate, N-zinc chelate, N-nitroamine, N-nitrosoamine, amine N-oxide, diphenylphosphinamide (Dpp), dimethylthiophosphinamide (Mpt), diphenylthiophosphinamide (Ppt), dialkyl phosphoramidates, dibenzyl phosphoramidate, diphenyl phosphoramidate, benzenesulfenamide, o-nitrobenzenesulfenamide (Nps), 2,4-dinitrobenzenesulfenamide, pentachlorobenzenesulfenamide, 2-nitro-4-methoxybenzenesulfenamide, triphenylmethylsulfenamide, and 3-nitropyridinesulfenamide (Npys).

In certain embodiments, the substituent present on an oxygen atom is an oxygen protecting group (also referred to as a hydroxyl protecting group). Oxygen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, —R^(aa), —N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)SR^(aa), —C(═O)R^(aa), —CO₂R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —S(═O)R^(aa), —SO₂R^(aa), —Si(R^(aa))₃, —P(R)₂, —P(R^(cc))₃, —P(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —P(═O)(OR)₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(bb))₂, and —P(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, wherein R^(aa), R^(bb), and R^(cc) are as defined herein. Oxygen protecting groups are well known in the art and include those described in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3^(rd) edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference.

Exemplary oxygen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, methyl, methoxylmethyl (MOM), methylthiomethyl (MTM), t-butylthiomethyl, (phenyldimethylsilyl)methoxymethyl (SMOM), benzyloxymethyl (BOM), p-methoxybenzyloxymethyl (PMBM), (4-methoxyphenoxy)methyl (p-AOM), guaiacolmethyl (GUM), t-butoxymethyl, 4-pentenyloxymethyl (POM), siloxymethyl, 2-methoxyethoxymethyl (MEM), 2,2,2-trichloroethoxymethyl, bis(2-chloroethoxy)methyl, 2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxymethyl (SEMOR), tetrahydropyranyl (THP), 3-bromotetrahydropyranyl, tetrahydrothiopyranyl, 1-methoxycyclohexyl, 4-methoxytetrahydropyranyl (MTHP), 4-methoxytetrahydrothiopyranyl, 4-methoxytetrahydrothiopyranyl S,S-dioxide, 1-[(2-chloro-4-methyl)phenyl]-4-methoxypiperidin-4-yl (CTMP), 1,4-dioxan-2-yl, tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothiofuranyl, 2,3,3a,4,5,6,7,7a-octahydro-7,8,8-trimethyl-4,7-methanobenzofuran-2-yl, 1-ethoxyethyl, 1-(2-chloroethoxy)ethyl, 1-methyl-1-methoxyethyl, 1-methyl-1-benzyloxyethyl, 1-methyl-1-benzyloxy-2-fluoroethyl, 2,2,2-trichloroethyl, 2-trimethylsilylethyl, 2-(phenylselenyl)ethyl, t-butyl, allyl, p-chlorophenyl, p-methoxyphenyl, 2,4-dinitrophenyl, benzyl (Bn), p-methoxybenzyl, 3,4-dimethoxybenzyl, o-nitrobenzyl, p-nitrobenzyl, p-halobenzyl, 2,6-dichlorobenzyl, p-cyanobenzyl, p-phenylbenzyl, 2-picolyl, 4-picolyl, 3-methyl-2-picolyl N-oxido, diphenylmethyl, p,p′-dinitrobenzhydryl, 5-dibenzosuberyl, triphenylmethyl, a-naphthyldiphenylmethyl, p-methoxyphenyldiphenylmethyl, di(p-methoxyphenyl)phenylmethyl, tri(p-methoxyphenyl)methyl, 4-(4′-bromophenacyloxyphenyl)diphenylmethyl, 4,4′,4″-tris(4,5-dichlorophthalimidophenyl) methyl, 4,4′,4″-tris(levulinoyloxyphenyl)methyl, 4,4′,4″-tris(benzoyloxyphenyl)methyl, 3-(imidazol-1-yl)bis(4′,4″-dimethoxyphenyl)methyl, 1,1-bis(4-methoxyphenyl)-1′-pyrenylmethyl, 9-anthryl, 9-(9-phenyl)xanthenyl, 9-(9-phenyl-10-oxo)anthryl, 1,3-benzodisulfuran-2-yl, benzisothiazolyl S,S-dioxido, trimethylsilyl (TMS), triethylsilyl (TES), triisopropylsilyl (TIPS), dimethylisopropylsilyl (IPDMS), diethylisopropylsilyl (DEIPS), dimethylthexylsilyl, t-butyldimethylsilyl (TBDMS), t-butyldiphenylsilyl (TBDPS), tribenzylsilyl, tri-p-xylylsilyl, triphenylsilyl, diphenylmethylsilyl (DPMS), t-butylmethoxyphenylsilyl (TBMPS), formate, benzoylformate, acetate, chloroacetate, dichloroacetate, trichloroacetate, trifluoroacetate, methoxyacetate, triphenylmethoxyacetate, phenoxyacetate, p-chlorophenoxyacetate, 3-phenylpropionate, 4-oxopentanoate (levulinate), 4,4-(ethylenedithio) pentanoate (levulinoyldithioacetal), pivaloate, adamantoate, crotonate, 4-methoxycrotonate, benzoate, p-phenylbenzoate, 2,4,6-trimethylbenzoate (mesitoate), alkyl methyl carbonate, 9-fluorenylmethyl carbonate (Fmoc), alkyl ethyl carbonate, alkyl 2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbonate (Troc), 2-(trimethylsilyl)ethyl carbonate (TMSEC), 2-(phenylsulfonyl) ethyl carbonate (Psec), 2-(triphenylphosphonio) ethyl carbonate (Peoc), alkyl isobutyl carbonate, alkyl vinyl carbonate alkyl allyl carbonate, t-butyl carbonate (BOC), alkyl p-nitrophenyl carbonate, alkyl benzyl carbonate, alkyl p-methoxybenzyl carbonate, alkyl 3,4-dimethoxybenzyl carbonate, alkyl o-nitrobenzyl carbonate, alkyl p-nitrobenzyl carbonate, alkyl S-benzyl thiocarbonate, 4-ethoxy-1-napththyl carbonate, methyl dithiocarbonate, 2-iodobenzoate, 4-azidobutyrate, 4-nitro-4-methylpentanoate, o-(dibromomethyl)benzoate, 2-formylbenzenesulfonate, 2-(methylthiomethoxy)ethyl, 4-(methylthiomethoxy) butyrate, 2-(methylthiomethoxymethyl) benzoate, 2,6-dichloro-4-methyl phenoxyacetate, 2,6-dichloro-4-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylbutyl) phenoxyacetate, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylpropyl)phenoxyacetate, chlorodiphenylacetate, isobutyrate, monosuccinoate, (E)-2-methyl-2-butenoate, o-(methoxyacyl)benzoate, a-naphthoate, nitrate, alkyl N,N,N′,N′-tetramethylphosphorodiamidate, alkyl N-phenylcarbamate, borate, dimethylphosphinothioyl, alkyl 2,4-dinitrophenylsulfenate, sulfate, methanesulfonate (mesylate), benzylsulfonate, and tosylate (Ts).

In certain embodiments, the substituent present on a sulfur atom is a sulfur protecting group (also referred to as a thiol protecting group). Sulfur protecting groups include, but are not limited to, —R^(aa), —N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)SR^(aa), —C(═O)R^(aa), —CO₂R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —S(═O)R^(aa), —SO₂R^(aa), —Si(R^(aa))₃, —P(R^(bb))₂, —P(R^(cc))₃, —P(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —P(═O)(OR)₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(bb))₂, and —P(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, wherein R^(aa), R^(bb), and R^(cc) are as defined herein. Sulfur protecting groups are well known in the art and include those described in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3^(rd) edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference.

These and other exemplary substituents are described in more detail in the Detailed Description, Figures, Examples, and Claims. The invention is not intended to be limited in any manner by the above exemplary listing of substituents.

Other Definitions

The following definitions are more general terms used throughout the present application.

As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable salt” refers to those salts which are, within the scope of sound medical judgment, suitable for use in contact with the tissues of humans and lower animals without undue toxicity, irritation, allergic response and the like, and are commensurate with a reasonable benefit/risk ratio. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts are well known in the art. For example, Berge et al., describe pharmaceutically acceptable salts in detail in J. Pharmaceutical Sciences, 1977, 66, 1-19, incorporated herein by reference. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the compounds of this invention include those derived from suitable inorganic and organic acids and bases. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable, nontoxic acid addition salts are salts of an amino group formed with inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid, and perchloric acid or with organic acids such as acetic acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, succinic acid, or malonic acid or by using other methods known in the art such as ion exchange. Other pharmaceutically acceptable salts include adipate, alginate, ascorbate, aspartate, benzenesulfonate, benzoate, bisulfate, borate, butyrate, camphorate, camphorsulfonate, citrate, cyclopentanepropionate, digluconate, dodecylsulfate, ethanesulfonate, formate, fumarate, glucoheptonate, glycerophosphate, gluconate, hemisulfate, heptanoate, hexanoate, hydroiodide, 2-hydroxy-ethanesulfonate, lactobionate, lactate, laurate, lauryl sulfate, malate, maleate, malonate, methanesulfonate, 2-naphthalenesulfonate, nicotinate, nitrate, oleate, oxalate, palmitate, pamoate, pectinate, persulfate, 3-phenylpropionate, phosphate, picrate, pivalate, propionate, stearate, succinate, sulfate, tartrate, thiocyanate, p-toluenesulfonate, undecanoate, valerate salts, and the like. Salts derived from appropriate bases include alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, ammonium and N⁺(C₁₋₄ alkyl)₄ ⁻ salts. Representative alkali or alkaline earth metal salts include sodium, lithium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and the like. Further pharmaceutically acceptable salts include, when appropriate, nontoxic ammonium, quaternary ammonium, and amine cations formed using counterions such as halide, hydroxide, carboxylate, sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, loweralkyl sulfonate, and aryl sulfonate.

The term “solvate” refers to forms of the compound that are associated with a solvent, usually by a solvolysis reaction. This physical association may include hydrogen bonding. Conventional solvents include water, methanol, ethanol, acetic acid, DMSO, THF, diethyl ether, and the like. The compounds of Formula (I) may be prepared, e.g., in crystalline form, and may be solvated. Suitable solvates include pharmaceutically acceptable solvates and further include both stoichiometric solvates and non-stoichiometric solvates. In certain instances, the solvate will be capable of isolation, for example, when one or more solvent molecules are incorporated in the crystal lattice of a crystalline solid. “Solvate” encompasses both solution-phase and isolable solvates. Representative solvates include hydrates, ethanolates, and methanolates.

The term “hydrate” refers to a compound which is associated with water. Typically, the number of the water molecules contained in a hydrate of a compound is in a definite ratio to the number of the compound molecules in the hydrate. Therefore, a hydrate of a compound may be represented, for example, by the general formula R.x H₂O, wherein R is the compound and wherein x is a number greater than 0. A given compound may form more than one type of hydrates, including, e.g., monohydrates (x is 1), lower hydrates (x is a number greater than 0 and smaller than 1, e.g., hemihydrates (R.0.5 H₂O)), and polyhydrates (x is a number greater than 1, e.g., dihydrates (R.2 H₂O) and hexahydrates (R.6 H₂O)).

As used herein, the term “tautomer” includes two or more interconvertable forms resulting from at least one formal migration of a hydrogen atom and at least one change in valency (e.g., a single bond to a double bond, a triple bond to a double bond, or vice versa). The exact ratio of the tautomers depends on several factors, including temperature, solvent, and pH. Tautomerizations (i.e., the reaction providing a tautomeric pair) may be catalyzed by acid or base. Exemplary tautomerizations include keto-to-enol; amide-to-imide; lactam-to-lactim; enamine-to-imine; and enamine-to-(a different) enamine tautomerizations.

It is also to be understood that compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the nature or sequence of bonding of their atoms or the arrangement of their atoms in space are termed “isomers”. Isomers that differ in the arrangement of their atoms in space are termed “stereoisomers”.

Stereoisomers that are not mirror images of one another are termed “diastereomers” and those that are non-superimposable mirror images of each other are termed “enantiomers”. When a compound has an asymmetric center, for example, it is bonded to four different groups, a pair of enantiomers is possible. An enantiomer can be characterized by the absolute configuration of its asymmetric center and is described by the R- and S-sequencing rules of Cahn and Prelog, or by the manner in which the molecule rotates the plane of polarized light and designated as dextrorotatory or levorotatory (i.e., as (+) or (−)-isomers respectively). A chiral compound can exist as either individual enantiomer or as a mixture thereof. A mixture containing equal proportions of the enantiomers is called a “racemic mixture”.

The term “polymorphs” refers to a crystalline form of a compound (or a salt, hydrate, or solvate thereof) in a particular crystal packing arrangement. All polymorphs have the same elemental composition. Different crystalline forms usually have different X-ray diffraction patterns, infrared spectra, melting points, density, hardness, crystal shape, optical and electrical properties, stability, and/or solubility. Recrystallization solvent, rate of crystallization, storage temperature, and other factors may cause one crystal form to dominate. Various polymorphs of a compound can be prepared by crystallization under different conditions.

The term “prodrugs” refer to compounds, including derivatives of the compounds of Formula (I), which have cleavable groups and are converted by hydrolysis or under physiological conditions to the compounds of Formula (I), which are pharmaceutically active in vivo. Such examples include, but are not limited to, choline ester derivatives and the like, N-alkylmorpholine esters and the like. Other derivatives of the compounds of this invention have activity in both their acid and acid derivative forms, but in the acid-sensitive form often offers advantages of solubility, tissue compatibility, or delayed release in the mammalian organism (see, Bundgard, H., Design of Prodrugs, pp. 7-9, 21-24, Elsevier, Amsterdam 1985). Prodrugs include acid derivatives well known to practitioners of the art, such as, for example, esters prepared by reaction of the parent acid with a suitable alcohol, or amides prepared by reaction of the parent acid compound with a substituted or unsubstituted amine, or acid anhydrides, or mixed anhydrides. Simple aliphatic or aromatic esters, amides, and anhydrides derived from acidic groups pendant on the compounds of this invention are particular prodrugs. In some cases it is desirable to prepare double ester type prodrugs such as (acyloxy)alkyl esters or ((alkoxycarbonyl)oxy)alkylesters. C₁ to C₈ alkyl, C₂-C₈ alkenyl, C₂-C₈ alkynyl, aryl, C₇-C₁₂ substituted aryl, and C₇-C₁₂ arylalkyl esters of the compounds of Formula (I) may be preferred in certain instances.

A “subject” to which administration is contemplated includes, but is not limited to, humans (i.e., a male or female of any age group, e.g., a pediatric subject (e.g., infant, child, adolescent) or adult subject (e.g., young adult, middle-aged adult, or senior adult)) and/or other non-human animals, for example, mammals (e.g., primates (e.g., cynomolgus monkeys, rhesus monkeys); commercially relevant mammals such as cattle, pigs, horses, sheep, goats, cats, and/or dogs) and birds (e.g., commercially relevant birds such as chickens, ducks, geese, and/or turkeys). In certain embodiments, the animal is a mammal. The animal may be a male or female and at any stage of development. A non-human animal may be a transgenic animal.

The terms “administer,” “administering,” or “administration,” as used herein refers to implanting, absorbing, ingesting, injecting, inhaling, or otherwise introducing an inventive compound, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof.

As used herein, the terms “treatment,” “treat,” and “treating” refer to reversing, alleviating, delaying the onset of, or inhibiting the progress of a “pathological condition” (e.g., a disease, disorder, or condition, or one or more signs or symptoms thereof) described herein. In some embodiments, treatment may be administered after one or more signs or symptoms have developed or have been observed. In other embodiments, treatment may be administered in the absence of signs or symptoms of the disease or condition. For example, treatment may be administered to a susceptible individual prior to the onset of symptoms (e.g., in light of a history of symptoms and/or in light of genetic or other susceptibility factors). Treatment may also be continued after symptoms have resolved, for example, to delay or prevent recurrence.

As used herein, the terms “condition,” “disease,” and “disorder” are used interchangeably.

An “effective amount” of a compound of Formulae (I)-(VI) refers to an amount sufficient to elicit a desired biological response, i.e., treating the condition. As will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in this art, the effective amount of a compound of Formulae (I)-(VI) may vary depending on such factors as the desired biological endpoint, the pharmacokinetics of the compound, the condition being treated, the mode of administration, and the age and health of the subject. An effective amount encompasses therapeutic and prophylactic treatment. For example, in treating cancer, an effective amount of an inventive compound may reduce the tumor burden or stop the growth or spread of a tumor. In treating macular degeneration, an effective amount of an inventive compound may improve sight, reduce the risk of vision loss, or prevent central vision loss from worsening.

A “therapeutically effective amount” of a compound of Formulae (I)-(VI) is an amount sufficient to provide a therapeutic benefit in the treatment of a condition or to delay or minimize one or more symptoms associated with the condition. A therapeutically effective amount of a compound means an amount of therapeutic agent, alone or in combination with other therapies, which provides a therapeutic benefit in the treatment of the condition. The term “therapeutically effective amount” can encompass an amount that improves overall therapy, reduces or avoids symptoms or causes of the condition, or enhances the therapeutic efficacy of another therapeutic agent.

A “prophylactically effective amount” of a compound of Formula (I)-(VI) is an amount sufficient to prevent a condition, or one or more symptoms associated with the condition or prevent its recurrence. A prophylactically effective amount of a compound means an amount of a therapeutic agent, alone or in combination with other agents, which provides a prophylactic benefit in the prevention of the condition. The term “prophylactically effective amount” can encompass an amount that improves overall prophylaxis or enhances the prophylactic efficacy of another prophylactic agent.

A “proliferative disease” refers to a disease that occurs due to abnormal growth or extension by the multiplication of cells (Walker, Cambridge Dictionary of Biology; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1990). A proliferative disease may be associated with: 1) the pathological proliferation of normally quiescent cells; 2) the pathological migration of cells from their normal location (e.g., metastasis of neoplastic cells); 3) the pathological expression of proteolytic enzymes such as matrix metalloproteinases (e.g., collagenases, gelatinases, and elastases); or 4) pathological angiogenesis as in proliferative retinopathy and tumor metastasis. Exemplary proliferative diseases include cancers (i.e., “malignant neoplasms”), benign neoplasms, angiogenesis, inflammatory diseases, autoinflammatory diseases, and autoimmune diseases.

The terms “neoplasm” and “tumor” are used herein interchangeably and refer to an abnormal mass of tissue wherein the growth of the mass surpasses and is not coordinated with the growth of a normal tissue. A neoplasm or tumor may be “benign” or “malignant,” depending on the following characteristics: degree of cellular differentiation (including morphology and functionality), rate of growth, local invasion, and metastasis. A “benign neoplasm” is generally well differentiated, has characteristically slower growth than a malignant neoplasm, and remains localized to the site of origin. In addition, a benign neoplasm does not have the capacity to infiltrate, invade, or metastasize to distant sites. Exemplary benign neoplasms include, but are not limited to, lipoma, chondroma, adenomas, acrochordon, senile angiomas, seborrheic keratoses, lentigos, and sebaceous hyperplasias. In some cases, certain “benign” tumors may later give rise to malignant neoplasms, which may result from additional genetic changes in a subpopulation of the tumor's neoplastic cells, and these tumors are referred to as “pre-malignant neoplasms.” An example of a pre-malignant neoplasm is a teratoma. In contrast, a “malignant neoplasm” is generally poorly differentiated (anaplasia) and has characteristically rapid growth accompanied by progressive infiltration, invasion, and destruction of the surrounding tissue. Furthermore, a malignant neoplasm generally has the capacity to metastasize to distant sites.

The term “metastasis,” “metastatic,” or “metastasize” refers to the spread or migration of cancerous cells from a primary or original tumor to another organ or tissue and is typically identifiable by the presence of a “secondary tumor” or “secondary cell mass” of the tissue type of the primary or original tumor and not of that of the organ or tissue in which the secondary (metastatic) tumor is located. For example, a prostate cancer that has migrated to bone is said to be metastasized prostate cancer and includes cancerous prostate cancer cells growing in bone tissue.

As used herein, the term “cancer” refers to a malignant neoplasm (Stedman's Medical Dictionary, 25th ed.; Hensyl ed.; Williams & Wilkins: Philadelphia, 1990). Exemplary cancers include, but are not limited to, acoustic neuroma; adenocarcinoma; adrenal gland cancer; anal cancer; angiosarcoma (e.g., lymphangiosarcoma, lymphangioendotheliosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma); appendix cancer; benign monoclonal gammopathy; biliary cancer (e.g., cholangiocarcinoma); bladder cancer; breast cancer (e.g., adenocarcinoma of the breast, papillary carcinoma of the breast, mammary cancer, medullary carcinoma of the breast); brain cancer (e.g., meningioma, glioblastomas, glioma (e.g., astrocytoma, oligodendroglioma), medulloblastoma); bronchus cancer; carcinoid tumor; cervical cancer (e.g., cervical adenocarcinoma); choriocarcinoma; chordoma; craniopharyngioma; colorectal cancer (e.g., colon cancer, rectal cancer, colorectal adenocarcinoma); connective tissue cancer; epithelial carcinoma; ependymoma; endotheliosarcoma (e.g., Kaposi's sarcoma, multiple idiopathic hemorrhagic sarcoma); endometrial cancer (e.g., uterine cancer, uterine sarcoma); esophageal cancer (e.g., adenocarcinoma of the esophagus, Barrett's adenocarinoma); Ewing's sarcoma; eye cancer (e.g., intraocular melanoma, retinoblastoma); familiar hypereosinophilia; gall bladder cancer; gastric cancer (e.g., stomach adenocarcinoma); gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST); germ cell cancer; head and neck cancer (e.g., head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, oral cancer (e.g., oral squamous cell carcinoma), throat cancer (e.g., laryngeal cancer, pharyngeal cancer, nasopharyngeal cancer, oropharyngeal cancer)); hematopoietic cancers (e.g., leukemia such as acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) (e.g., B-cell ALL, T-cell ALL), acute myelocytic leukemia (AML) (e.g., B-cell AML, T-cell AML), chronic myelocytic leukemia (CML) (e.g., B-cell CML, T-cell CML), and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) (e.g., B-cell CLL, T-cell CLL)); lymphoma such as Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) (e.g., B-cell HL, T-cell HL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) (e.g., B-cell NHL such as diffuse large cell lymphoma (DLCL) (e.g., diffuse large B-cell lymphoma), follicular lymphoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia/small lymphocytic lymphoma (CLL/SLL), mantle cell lymphoma (MCL), marginal zone B-cell lymphomas (e.g., mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphomas, nodal marginal zone B-cell lymphoma, splenic marginal zone B-cell lymphoma), primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma, Burkitt lymphoma, lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma (i.e., Waldenström's macroglobulinemia), hairy cell leukemia (HCL), immunoblastic large cell lymphoma, precursor B-lymphoblastic lymphoma and primary central nervous system (CNS) lymphoma; and T-cell NHL such as precursor T-lymphoblastic lymphoma/leukemia, peripheral T-cell lymphoma (PTCL) (e.g., cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL) (e.g., mycosis fungiodes, Sezary syndrome), angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma, extranodal natural killer T-cell lymphoma, enteropathy type T-cell lymphoma, subcutaneous panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma, and anaplastic large cell lymphoma); a mixture of one or more leukemia/lymphoma as described above; and multiple myeloma (MM)), heavy chain disease (e.g., alpha chain disease, gamma chain disease, mu chain disease); hemangioblastoma; hypopharynx cancer; inflammatory myofibroblastic tumors; immunocytic amyloidosis; kidney cancer (e.g., nephroblastoma a.k.a. Wilms' tumor, renal cell carcinoma); liver cancer (e.g., hepatocellular cancer (HCC), malignant hepatoma); lung cancer (e.g., bronchogenic carcinoma, small cell lung cancer (SCLC), non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), adenocarcinoma of the lung); leiomyosarcoma (LMS); mastocytosis (e.g., systemic mastocytosis); muscle cancer; myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS); mesothelioma; myeloproliferative disorder (MPD) (e.g., polycythemia vera (PV), essential thrombocytosis (ET), agnogenic myeloid metaplasia (AMM) a.k.a. myelofibrosis (MF), chronic idiopathic myelofibrosis, chronic myelocytic leukemia (CML), chronic neutrophilic leukemia (CNL), hypereosinophilic syndrome (HES)); neuroblastoma; neurofibroma (e.g., neurofibromatosis (NF) type 1 or type 2, schwannomatosis); neuroendocrine cancer (e.g., gastroenteropancreatic neuroendoctrine tumor (GEP-NET), carcinoid tumor); osteosarcoma (e.g., bone cancer); ovarian cancer (e.g., cystadenocarcinoma, ovarian embryonal carcinoma, ovarian adenocarcinoma); papillary adenocarcinoma; pancreatic cancer (e.g., pancreatic andenocarcinoma, intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm (IPMN), Islet cell tumors); penile cancer (e.g., Paget's disease of the penis and scrotum); pinealoma; primitive neuroectodermal tumor (PNT); plasma cell neoplasia; paraneoplastic syndromes; intraepithelial neoplasms; prostate cancer (e.g., prostate adenocarcinoma); rectal cancer; rhabdomyosarcoma; salivary gland cancer; skin cancer (e.g., squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), keratoacanthoma (KA), melanoma, basal cell carcinoma (BCC)); small bowel cancer (e.g., appendix cancer); soft tissue sarcoma (e.g., malignant fibrous histiocytoma (MFH), liposarcoma, malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor (MPNST), chondrosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, myxosarcoma); sebaceous gland carcinoma; small intestine cancer; sweat gland carcinoma; synovioma; testicular cancer (e.g., seminoma, testicular embryonal carcinoma); thyroid cancer (e.g., papillary carcinoma of the thyroid, papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC), medullary thyroid cancer); urethral cancer; vaginal cancer; and vulvar cancer (e.g., Paget's disease of the vulva).

The term “angiogenesis” refers to the formation and growth of new blood vessels. Normal angiogenesis occurs in the healthy body of a subject during wound healing and for restoring blood flow to tissues after injury. The healthy body controls angiogenesis through a number of means, e.g., angiogenesis-stimulating growth factors and angiogenesis inhibitors. Many disease states, such as cancer, diabetic blindness, age-related macular degeneration, rheumatoid arthritis, and psoriasis, are characterized by abnormal (i.e., increased or excessive) angiogenesis. Abnormal angiogenesis refers to angiogenesis greater than that in a normal body, especially angiogenesis in an adult not related to normal angiogenesis (e.g., menstruation or wound healing). Abnormal angiogenesis can result in new blood vessels that feed diseased tissues and/or destroy normal tissues, and in the case of cancer, the new vessels can allow tumor cells to escape into the circulation and lodge in other organs (tumor metastases).

As used herein, an “inflammatory disease” refers to a disease caused by, resulting from, or resulting in inflammation. The term “inflammatory disease” may also refer to a dysregulated inflammatory reaction that causes an exaggerated response by macrophages, granulocytes, and/or T-lymphocytes leading to abnormal tissue damage and/or cell death. An inflammatory disease can be either an acute or chronic inflammatory condition and can result from infections or non-infectious causes. Inflammatory diseases include, without limitation, atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis, autoimmune disorders, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR), gouty arthritis, degenerative arthritis, tendonitis, bursitis, psoriasis, cystic fibrosis, arthrosteitis, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory arthritis, Sjogren's syndrome, giant cell arteritis, progressive systemic sclerosis (scleroderma), ankylosing spondylitis, polymyositis, dermatomyosifis, pemphigus, pemphigoid, diabetes (e.g., Type I), myasthenia gravis, Hashimoto's thyroditis, Graves' disease, Goodpasture's disease, mixed connective tissue disease, sclerosing cholangitis, inflammatory bowel disease, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, pernicious anemia, inflammatory dermatoses, usual interstitial pneumonitis (UIP), asbestosis, silicosis, bronchiectasis, berylliosis, talcosis, pneumoconiosis, sarcoidosis, desquamative interstitial pneumonia, lymphoid interstitial pneumonia, giant cell interstitial pneumonia, cellular interstitial pneumonia, extrinsic allergic alveolitis, Wegener's granulomatosis and related forms of angiitis (temporal arteritis and polyarteritis nodosa), inflammatory dermatoses, hepatitis, delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions (e.g., poison ivy dermatitis), pneumonia, respiratory tract inflammation, Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS), encephalitis, immediate hypersensitivity reactions, asthma, hayfever, allergies, acute anaphylaxis, rheumatic fever, glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis, cellulitis, cystitis, chronic cholecystitis, ischemia (ischemic injury), reperfusion injury, allograft rejection, host-versus-graft rejection, appendicitis, arteritis, blepharitis, bronchiolitis, bronchitis, cervicitis, cholangitis, chorioamnionitis, conjunctivitis, dacryoadenitis, dermatomyositis, endocarditis, endometritis, enteritis, enterocolitis, epicondylitis, epididymitis, fasciitis, fibrositis, gastritis, gastroenteritis, gingivitis, ileitis, iritis, laryngitis, myelitis, myocarditis, nephritis, omphalitis, oophoritis, orchitis, osteitis, otitis, pancreatitis, parotitis, pericarditis, pharyngitis, pleuritis, phlebitis, pneumonitis, proctitis, prostatitis, rhinitis, salpingitis, sinusitis, stomatitis, synovitis, testitis, tonsillitis, urethritis, urocystitis, uveitis, vaginitis, vasculitis, vulvitis, vulvovaginitis, angitis, chronic bronchitis, osteomylitis, optic neuritis, temporal arteritis, transverse myelitis, necrotizing fascilitis, and necrotizing enterocolitis.

As used herein, an “autoimmune disease” refers to a disease arising from an inappropriate immune response in the body of a subject against substances and tissues normally present in the body. In other words, the immune system mistakes some part of the body as a pathogen and attacks its own cells. This may be restricted to certain organs (e.g., in autoimmune thyroiditis) or involve a particular tissue in different places (e.g., Goodpasture's disease which may affect the basement membrane in both the lung and kidney). The treatment of autoimmune diseases is typically with immunosuppressants, e.g., medications which decrease the immune response. Exemplary autoimmune diseases include, but are not limited to, glomerulonephritis, Goodspature's syndrome, necrotizing vasculitis, lymphadenitis, peri-arteritis nodosa, systemic lupus erythematosis, rheumatoid, arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosis, psoriasis, ulcerative colitis, systemic sclerosis, dermatomyositis/polymyositis, anti-phospholipid antibody syndrome, scleroderma, perphigus vulgaris, ANCA-associated vasculitis (e.g., Wegener's granulomatosis, microscopic polyangiitis), urveitis, Sjogren's syndrome, Crohn's disease, Reiter's syndrome, ankylosing spondylitis, Lyme arthritis, Guillain-Barre syndrome, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, and cardiomyopathy.

The term “autoinflammatory disease” refers to a category of diseases that are similar but different from autoimmune diseases. Autoinflammatory and autoimmune diseases share common characteristics in that both groups of disorders result from the immune system attacking a subject's own tissues and result in increased inflammation. In autoinflammatory diseases, a subject's innate immune system causes inflammation for unknown reasons. The innate immune system reacts even though it has never encountered autoantibodies or antigens in the subject. Autoinflammatory disorders are characterized by intense episodes of inflammation that result in such symptoms as fever, rash, or joint swelling. These diseases also carry the risk of amyloidosis, a potentially fatal buildup of a blood protein in vital organs. Autoinflammatory diseases include, but are not limited to, familial Mediterranean fever (FMF), neonatal onset multisystem inflammatory disease (NOMID), tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor-associated periodic syndrome (TRAPS), deficiency of the interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (DIRA), and Behget's disease.

The term “biological sample” refers to any sample including tissue samples (such as tissue sections and needle biopsies of a tissue); cell samples (e.g., cytological smears (such as Pap or blood smears) or samples of cells obtained by microdissection); samples of whole organisms (such as samples of yeasts or bacteria); or cell fractions, fragments or organelles (such as obtained by lysing cells and separating the components thereof by centrifugation or otherwise). Other examples of biological samples include blood, serum, urine, semen, fecal matter, cerebrospinal fluid, interstitial fluid, mucus, tears, sweat, pus, biopsied tissue (e.g., obtained by a surgical biopsy or needle biopsy), nipple aspirates, milk, vaginal fluid, saliva, swabs (such as buccal swabs), or any material containing biomolecules that is derived from a first biological sample. Biological samples also include those biological samples that are transgenic, such as transgenic oocyte, sperm cell, blastocyst, embryo, fetus, donor cell, or cell nucleus.

A “protein” or “peptide” comprises a polymer of amino acid residues linked together by peptide bonds. The term, as used herein, refers to proteins, polypeptides, and peptides of any size, structure, or function. Typically, a protein will be at least three amino acids long. A protein may refer to an individual protein or a collection of proteins. Inventive proteins preferably contain only natural amino acids, although non-natural amino acids (i.e., compounds that do not occur in nature but that can be incorporated into a polypeptide chain) and/or amino acid analogs as are known in the art may alternatively be employed. Also, one or more of the amino acids in an inventive protein may be modified, for example, by the addition of a chemical entity such as a carbohydrate group, a hydroxyl group, a phosphate group, a farnesyl group, an isofarnesyl group, a fatty acid group, a linker for conjugation or functionalization, or other modification. A protein may also be a single molecule or may be a multi-molecular complex. A protein may be a fragment of a naturally occurring protein or peptide. A protein may be naturally occurring, recombinant, or synthetic, or any combination of these.

The term “kinase” refers to any enzyme that catalyzes the addition of a phosphate group to a residue of a protein. For example, a serine kinase catalyzes the addition of a phosphate group to a serine residue of a protein.

The term “ocular disease” or “ocular disorder” refers to any eye disease and/or disorder. For example, ocular diseases can be disorders of the eyelid, lacrimal system and orbit, disorders of conjunctiva, disorders of sclera, cornea, iris and ciliary body, disorders of choroid and retina, glaucoma, disorders of optic nerve and visual pathways, or disorders of ocular muscles. Additionally, ocular disease can also refer to discomfort following injury, surgery, or laser treatment. Diseases and disorders of the eye include, but are not limited to, macular degeneration, dry eye syndrome, uveitis, allergic conjunctivitis, glaucoma, and rosacea (of the eye). Dry eye syndrome (DES), otherwise known as keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS), keratitis sicca, sicca syndrome, or xerophthalmia, is an eye disease caused by decreased tear production or increased tear film evaporation commonly found in humans and some animals. Uveitis or iridocyclitis refers to inflammation of the middle layer of the eye (the “uvea”) and in common usage may refer to any inflammatory process involving the interior of the eye. Allergic conjunctivitis is inflammation of the conjunctiva (the membrane covering the white part of the eye) due to allergy. Glaucoma refers to a group of diseases that affect the optic nerve and involves a loss of retinal ganglion cells in a characteristic pattern, i.e., a type of optic neuropathy. Raised intraocular pressure is a significant risk factor for developing glaucoma (above 22 mmHg or 2.9 kPa), and inflammatory processes, e.g.l, uveitis, can cause this rise in intraocular pressure. Rosacea is a chronic inflammatory condition characterized by facial erythema but it can affect the eyes.

The terms “macular degeneration,” “age-related macular degeneration,” “dry AMD,” and “central geographic atrophy” are used interchangeably herein. These terms refer to diseases that result from atrophy of the retinal pigment epithelial layer below the neurosensory retina, which causes vision loss through loss of photoreceptors (rods and cones) in the central part of the retinal.

The term “VEGF” is used interchangeably with vascular endothelial growth factor herein. It includes but is not limited to VEGF-related proteins such as Placenta growth factor (PGF), VEGF-A, VEGF-B, VEGF-C, VEGF-D, VEGF-E, and VEGF-F. The term VEGF also covers a number of proteins from two families that result from alternate splicing of mRNA from a single, 8-exon, VEGF gene. The two different families are referred to according to their terminal exon (exon 8) splice site—the proximal splice site (denoted VEGF_(xxx)) or distal splice site (VEGF_(xxxb)). In addition, alternate splicing of exon 6 and 7 alters their heparin-binding affinity, and amino acid number (in humans: VEGF₁₂₁, VEGF_(121b), VEGF₁₄₅, VEGF₁₆₅, VEGF_(165b), VEGF₁₈₉, VEGF₂₀₆; the rodent orthologs of these proteins contain one fewer amino acid). These domains have important functional consequences for the VEGF splice variants, as the terminal (exon 8) splice site determines whether the proteins are pro-angiogenic (proximal splice site, expressed during angiogenesis) or anti-angiogenic (distal splice site, expressed in normal tissues). In addition, inclusion or exclusion of exons 6 and 7 mediate interactions with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and neuropilin co-receptors on the cell surface, enhancing their ability to bind and activate the VEGF receptors (VEGFRs). The term “VEGF” also encompasses VEGF receptors. There are three main subtypes of VEGFR, numbered 1, 2 and 3. Also, they may be membrane-bound (mbVEGFR) or soluble (sVEGFR), depending on alternative splicing.

The term “particle” refers to a small object, fragment, or piece of a substance that may be a single element, inorganic material, organic material, or mixture thereof. Examples of particles include polymeric particles, single-emulsion particles, double-emulsion particles, coacervates, liposomes, microparticles, nanoparticles, macroscopic particles, pellets, crystals (e.g., crystalline forms of compounds or active pharmaceutical agent), aggregates, composites, pulverized, milled, or otherwise disrupted matrices, and cross-linked protein or polysaccharide particles, each of which have an average characteristic dimension of about less than about 1 mm and at least 1 nm, where the characteristic dimension, or “critical dimension,” of the particle is the smallest cross-sectional dimension of the particle. A particle may be composed of a single substance or multiple substances. In certain embodiments, the particle is not a viral particle. In other embodiments, the particle is not a liposome. In certain embodiments, the particle is not a micelle. In certain embodiments, the particle is substantially solid throughout. In certain embodiments, the particle is a nanoparticle. In certain embodiments, the particle is a microparticle.

The term “nanoparticle” refers to a particle having a characteristic dimension of less than about 1 micrometer and at least about 1 nanometer, where the characteristic dimension of the particle is the smallest cross-sectional dimension of the particle. A crystalline nanoparticle is referred to as a “nanocrystal.”

The term “microparticle” refers to a particle having a characteristic dimension of less than about 1 millimeter and at least about 1 micrometer, where the characteristic dimension of the particle is the smallest cross-sectional dimension of the particle.

The term “nanostructure” refers to a structure having at least one region or characteristic dimension with a dimension of less than about 1000 nm, e.g., less than about 300 nm, less than about 200 nm, less than about 100 nm, or less than about 50 nm. Typically, the region or characteristic dimension will be along the smallest axis of the structure. Examples of such structures include nanowires, nanorods, nanotubes, branched nanocrystals, nanotetrapods, tripods, bipods, nanocrystals, nanodots, quantum dots, nanoparticles, branched tetrapods (e.g., inorganic dendrimers), and the like. Nanostructures can be substantially homogeneous in material properties, or in certain embodiments can be heterogeneous (e.g. heterostructures). Nanostructures can be, e.g., substantially crystalline, substantially monocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous, or a combination thereof. In one aspect, each of the three dimensions of the nanostructure has a dimension of less than about 1000 nm, e.g., or even less than about 300 nm, less than about 200 nm, less than about 100 nm, or less than about 50 nm. Nanostructures can comprise one or more surface ligands (e.g., surfactants).

The terms “crystalline” or “substantially crystalline”, when used with respect to nanostructures, refer to the fact that the nanostructures typically exhibit long-range ordering across one or more dimensions of the structure. It will be understood by one of skill in the art that the term “long range ordering” will depend on the absolute size of the specific nanostructures, as ordering for a single crystal cannot extend beyond the boundaries of the crystal. In this case, “long-range ordering” will mean substantial order across at least the majority of the dimension of the nanostructure. In some instances, a nanostructure can bear an oxide or other coating, or can be comprised of a core and at least one shell. In such instances it will be appreciated that the oxide, shell(s), or other coating need not exhibit such ordering (e.g. it can be amorphous, polycrystalline, or otherwise). In such instances, the phrase “crystalline,” “substantially crystalline,” “substantially monocrystalline,” or “monocrystalline” refers to the central core of the nanostructure (excluding the coating layers or shells). The terms “crystalline” or “substantially crystalline” as used herein are intended to also encompass structures comprising various defects, stacking faults, atomic substitutions, and the like, as long as the structure exhibits substantial long range ordering (e.g., order over at least about 80% of the length of at least one axis of the nanostructure or its core). In addition, it will be appreciated that the interface between a core and the outside of a nanostructure or between a core and an adjacent shell or between a shell and a second adjacent shell may contain non-crystalline regions and may even be amorphous. This does not prevent the nanostructure from being crystalline or substantially crystalline as defined herein. The term “monocrystalline” when used with respect to a nanostructure indicates that the nanostructure is substantially crystalline and comprises substantially a single crystal. When used with respect to a nanostructure heterostructure comprising a core and one or more shells, “monocrystalline” indicates that the core is substantially crystalline and comprises substantially a single crystal. When not used with respect to a nanostructure, the term “monocrystalline” to materials that are composed of substantially a single crystallite of substantially the same size and orientation.

“Nanocrystal” is a nanostructure that is substantially monocrystalline. A nanocrystal thus has at least one region or characteristic dimension with a dimension of less than about 1000 nm, e.g., less than about 300 nm less than about 200 nm, less than about 100 nm, or less than about 50 nm. Typically, the region or characteristic dimension will be along the smallest axis of the structure. Examples of such structures include nanowires, nanorods, nanotubes, branched nanowires, nanotetrapods, nanotripods, nanobipods, nanocrystals, nanodots, quantum dots, nanoparticles, nanoribbons, and the like. Nanostructures can be substantially homogeneous in material properties, or in certain embodiments can be heterogeneous (e.g. heterostructures). Optionally, a nanocrystal can comprise one or more surface ligands (e.g., surfactants). The nanocrystal is optionally substantially single crystal in structure (a “single crystal nanostructure” or a “monocrystalline nanostructure”). While nanostructures for use in the present invention can be fabricated from essentially any convenient material or material, preferably the nanostructure is prepared from an inorganic material, e.g., an inorganic conductive or semiconductive material. A conductive or semi-conductive nanostructure often displays 1-dimensional quantum confinement, e.g., an electron can often travel along only one dimension of the structure. Nanocrystals can be substantially homogeneous in material properties, or in certain embodiments can be heterogeneous (e.g. heterostructures). The term “nanocrystal” is intended to encompass substantially monocrystalline nanostructures comprising various defects, stacking faults, atomic substitutions, and the like, as well as substantially monocrystalline nanostructures without such defects, faults, or substitutions. In the case of nanocrystal heterostructures comprising a core and one or more shells, the core of the nanocrystal is typically substantially monocrystalline, but the shell(s) need not be. The nanocrystals can be fabricated from essentially any convenient material or materials.

The term “polycrystalline” refers to materials that are composed of many crystallites of varying size and orientation. When used with respect to nanostructures, the term “polycrystalline” refers to a crystalline nanostructure that is not monocrystalline.

A “biocompatible” material refers to a material that does not typically induce an adverse response when inserted or injected into a subject. The adverse response includes significant inflammation and/or acute rejection of the material by the immune system of the subject, for instance, via a T-cell-mediated response. It is recognized that “biocompatibility” is a relative term and that some degree of immune response is to be expected even for materials that are highly compatible with living tissues of the subject. However, as used herein, “biocompatibility” refers to the acute rejection of a material by at least a portion of the immune system, i.e., a material that lacks biocompatibility (i.e. being non-biocompatible) in a subject provokes an immune response in the subject that is severe enough such that the rejection of the material by the immune system cannot be adequately controlled and often is of a degree such that the material must be removed from the subject in order for the subject to be as well as it was before the non-biocompatible material was introduced into the subject. One test to determine biocompatibility of a material is to expose the material to cells (e.g., fibroblasts or epithelial cells) in vitro; the material is considered biocompatible if it does not result in significant cell death at moderate concentrations, e.g., at concentrations of about 50 micrograms/10⁶ cells. In certain embodiments, there is no significant cell death if less than about 20% of the cells are dead, even if phagocytosed or otherwise uptaken by the cells. In some embodiments, a material is biocompatible if contacting it with cells in vitro results in less than 20% cell death and if the administration of the material in vivo does not induce unwanted inflammation or other adverse responses. In certain embodiments, a biocompatible material is biodegradable. A non-limiting example of biocompatible materials is biocompatible polymers (including biocompatible copolymers).

A “biodegradable” material refers to a material that is able to degrade chemically and/or biologically (e.g., by hydrolysis or enzymatic activity), within a physiological environment, such as within the body or when introduced to cells. For instance, the material may be one that hydrolyzes spontaneously upon exposure to water (e.g., within a subject) and/or may degrade upon exposure to heat (e.g., at temperatures of about 37° C.). Degradation of a material may occur at varying rates, depending on the material used. For example, the half-life of the material (the time at which 50% of the material is degraded into smaller components) may be on the order of days, weeks, months, or years. The material may be biologically degraded, e.g., by enzymatic activity or cellular machinery, for example, through exposure to a lysozyme. In some embodiments, the material may be broken down into smaller components that cells can either reuse or dispose of without significant toxic effect on the cells (e.g., fewer than about 20% of the cells are killed when the components are added to cells in vitro). Non-limiting examples of biodegradable materials are biodegradable polymers (including biodegradable copolymers). Examples of biodegradable polymers include, but are not limited to, poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(propylene oxide)-poly(ethylene glycol) triblock copolymers, poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), poly(lactide) (or poly(lactic acid)), poly(glycolide) (or poly(glycolic acid)), poly(orthoesters), poly(caprolactones), polylysine, poly(ethylene imine), poly(acrylic acid), poly(urethanes), poly(anhydrides), poly(esters), poly(trimethylene carbonate), poly(ethyleneimine), poly(acrylic acid), poly(urethane), poly(beta amino esters), and copolymers thereof (e.g., poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA)).

As used herein, the terms “pharmaceutical composition” and “formulation” are used interchangeably.

As used herein, the terms “pharmaceutical agent” and “drug” are used interchangeably.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF CERTAIN EMBODIMENTS

The present invention provides compounds of Formulae (I)-(VI). Also provided are methods of using compounds of Formulae (I)-(VI), to treat proliferative diseases, ocular diseases, dermatological diseases, inflammation diseases, or metabolic diseases. The present invention further provides methods of using the compounds of Formulae (I)-(VI) as therapeutics, e.g., in the treatment and/or prevention of diseases associated with growth factor activities or angiogenesis. In certain embodiments, the disease being treated is a proliferative disease. Exemplary proliferative diseases include, but are not limited to, cancers, benign neoplasms, diseases associated with angiogenesis, inflammatory diseases, autoinflammatory diseases, and autoimmune diseases. In certain embodiments, the disease is an ocular disease. Exemplary ocular diseases include, but are not limited to, macular degeneration, dry eye syndrome, uveitis, allergic conjunctivitis, glaucoma, and rosacea.

Compounds

As generally described herein, the present disclosure provides compounds of Formula (I):

wherein:

R₁ is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl;

R₂ is optionally hydrogen, substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;

X is a bond, —O—, —S—, —NR^(A1)—, —C(═O)—, or branched or unbranched optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene, wherein R^(A1) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted acyl, optionally substituted alkyl, or a nitrogen protecting group;

Y is N or CH;

each instance of R₃ is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted acyl, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, —CN, —NO₂, —OR^(D1a), —N(R^(D1a))₂, —SR^(D1a), —CH₂OR^(D1a), —CH₂N(R^(D1a))₂, —CH₂SR^(D1a), —C(═O)R^(D1a), —C(═O)OR^(D1a), —C(═O)SR^(D1a), —C(═O)N(R^(D1a))₂, —C(═S)R^(D1a), —C(═S)OR^(D1a), —C(═S)SR^(D1a), —C(═S)N(R^(D1a))₂, —C(═NR^(D1a))R^(D1a), —C(═NR^(D1a))OR^(D1a), —C(═NR^(D1a))SR^(D1a), and C(═NR^(D1a))N(R^(D1a))₂, wherein each occurrence of R^(D1a) is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, and optionally substituted heteroaryl, or two R^(D1a) groups are joined to form an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring;

Z is independently optionally substituted aliphatic, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted heterocyclylalkyl, optionally substituted arylalkyl, optionally substituted heteroaralkyl, or optionally substituted quinolyl;

m is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4; and

n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10.

In another aspect, the present disclosure provides compounds of Formula (VI):

wherein:

R₁ is independently hydrogen or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl;

R₂ is optionally hydrogen, substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl;

X is a bond, —O—, —S—, —NR^(A1)—, —C(═O)—, or branched or unbranched optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene, wherein R^(A1) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted acyl, optionally substituted alkyl, or a nitrogen protecting group;

Y is N or CH;

each instance of R₃ is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted acyl, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, —CN, —NO₂, —OR^(D1a), —N(R^(D1a))₂, —SR^(D1a), —CH₂OR^(D1a), —CH₂N(R^(D1a))₂, —CH₂SR^(D1a), —C(═O)R^(D1a), —C(═O)OR^(D1a), —C(═O)SR^(D1a), —C(═O)N(R^(D1a))₂, —C(═S)R^(D1a), —C(═S)OR^(D1a), —C(═S)SR^(D1a), —C(═S)N(R^(D1a))₂, —C(═NR^(D1a))R^(D1a), —C(═NR^(D1a))OR^(D1a), —C(═NR^(D1a))SR^(D1a), and C(═NR^(D1a))N(R^(D1a))₂, wherein each occurrence of R^(D1a) is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, and optionally substituted heteroaryl, or two R^(D1a) groups are joined to form an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring;

Z is independently optionally substituted aliphatic, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted heterocyclylalkyl, optionally substituted arylalkyl, optionally substituted heteroaralkyl, or optionally substituted quinolyl;

m is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4; and

n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10.

As generally described above, Z is independently optionally substituted aliphatic, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted heterocyclylalkyl, optionally substituted arylalkyl, optionally substituted heteroaralkyl, or optionally substituted quinolyl. In certain embodiments, Z is optionally substituted, acyclic or cyclic C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, Z is optionally substituted acyclic C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, Z is optionally substituted cyclic C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, Z is substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, Z is unsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, Z is substituted methyl. In certain embodiments, Z is unsubstituted methyl. In certain embodiments, Z is substituted ethyl. In certain embodiments, Z is unsubstituted ethyl. In certain embodiments, Z is substituted propyl. In certain embodiments, Z is unsubstituted propyl. In certain embodiments, Z is substituted n-propyl. In certain embodiments, Z is unsubstituted n-propyl. In certain embodiments, Z is substituted iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, Z is unsubstituted iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

As used above, g is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8. In certain embodiments, g is 0. In certain embodiments, g is 1. In certain embodiments, g is 2. In certain embodiments, g is 3. In certain embodiments, g is 4. In certain embodiments, g is 5. In certain embodiments, g is 6. In certain embodiments, g is 7. In certain embodiments, g is 8.

In certain embodiments, Z is optionally substituted heterocyclylalkyl. In certain embodiments, Z is optionally substituted heterocyclylalkyl with one nitrogen. In certain embodiments, Z is optionally substituted heterocyclylalkyl with one oxygen. In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

wherein h is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8, and each of e and f is independently 1, 2, or 3. In certain embodiments, h is 1. In certain embodiments, h is 2. In certain embodiments, h is 3. In certain embodiments, h is 4. In certain embodiments, h is 5. In certain embodiments, h is 6. In certain embodiments, h is 7. In certain embodiments, h is 8. In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is optionally substituted aryl. In certain embodiments, Z is optionally substituted monocyclic aryl. In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

Each instance of R₅ is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, —OR^(5A), —N(R^(5A))₂, —SR^(5A), —CN, —C(═O)R^(5A), —C(═O)OR^(5A), —C(═O)N(R^(5A))₂, —NO₂, —N₃, —N(R^(5A))₃ ⁺X⁻, wherein X⁻is a counterion, —OC(═O)R^(5A), or —OC(═O)OR^(5A), or two R⁵ groups are joined to form an optionally substituted carbocyclic, optionally substituted heterocyclic, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl ring; wherein each occurrence of R^(5A) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted acyl, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, a nitrogen protecting group when attached to a nitrogen atom, or an oxygen protecting group when attached to an oxygen atom, or two R^(5A) groups are joined to form an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring; and k is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5. In certain embodiments, k is 0. In certain embodiments, k is 1. In certain embodiments, k is 2. In certain embodiments, k is 3. In certain embodiments, k is 4. In certain embodiments, k is 5. In certain embodiments, R₅ is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R₅ is optionally substituted, branched or unbranched C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is unsubstituted methyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is substituted methyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is trifluoromethyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is unsubstituted ethyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is substituted ethyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is optionally substituted propyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is substituted n-propyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is unsubstituted n-propyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is substituted iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is unsubstituted iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is halogen. In certain embodiments, R₅ is I. In certain embodiments, R₅ is Br. In certain embodiments, R₅ is Cl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is F. In certain embodiments, R₅ is NO₂. In certain embodiments, R₅ is —OH. In certain embodiments, R₅ is —CN. In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, Z is optionally substituted bicyclic heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, Z is optionally substituted indole. In certain embodiments, Z is optionally substituted aza-indole. In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

Each instance of k is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4. In certain embodiments, k is 0. In certain embodiments, k is 1, In certain embodiments, k is 2. In certain embodiments, k is 3. In certain embodiments, k is 4. In certain embodiments, R₅ is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R₅ is optionally substituted, branched or unbranched C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is substituted methyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is unsubstituted methyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is substituted ethyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is unsubstituted ethyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is optionally substituted propyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is substituted n-propyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is unsubstituted n-propyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is substituted iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is unsubstituted iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is halogen. In certain embodiments, R₅ is I. In certain embodiments, R₅ is Br. In certain embodiments, R₅ is Cl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is F. In certain embodiments, R₅ is NO₂. In certain embodiments, R₅ is —OH. In certain embodiments, R₅ is hydrogen, methyl or F. In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is a 5-membered monocyclic heteroaryl ring, wherein one of the five ring carbon atoms is independently replaced by nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur. In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula:

In certain embodiments, Z is a 5-membered monocyclic heteroaryl ring, wherein two of the five ring carbon atoms are independently replaced by nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur. In certain embodiments, Z is one of the formula:

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula:

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula:

Each instance of R₄ is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, —OR^(4A), —N(R^(4A))₂, —SR^(4A), —CN, —C(═O)R^(4A), —C(═O)OR^(4A), —C(═O)SR^(4A), —C(═O)N(R^(4A))₂, —NO₂, —N₃, —N(R^(4A))₃ ⁺X⁻, wherein X⁻is a counterion, or two R₄ groups are joined to form an optionally substituted carbocyclic, optionally substituted heterocyclic, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl ring; wherein each occurrence of R^(4A) is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, optionally substituted acyl, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, a nitrogen protecting group when attached to a nitrogen atom, an oxygen protecting group when attached to an oxygen atom, and a sulfur protecting group when attached to a sulfur atom, or two R^(4A) groups are joined to form an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring; and e is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5.

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, R₄ is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R₄ is optionally substituted, branched or unbranched alkyl. In certain embodiments, R₄ is optionally substituted, branched or unbranched C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R₄ is substituted ethyl. In certain embodiments, R₄ is unsubstituted ethyl. In certain embodiments, R₄ is substituted methyl. In certain embodiments, R₄ is unsubstituted methyl. In certain embodiments, R₄ is halogen. In certain embodiments, R₄ is F. In certain embodiments, R₄ is Cl. In certain embodiments, R₄ is Br. In certain embodiments, R₄ is I. In certain embodiments, j is 0. In certain embodiments, j is 1. In certain embodiments, j is 2. In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

In certain embodiments, Z is optionally substituted quinolyl. In certain embodiments, Z is of the formula

Each instance of R₅ is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, —OR^(5A), —N(R^(5A))₂, —SR^(5A), —CN, —C(═O)R^(5A), —C(═O)OR^(5A), —C(═O)N(R^(5A))₂, —NO₂, —N₃, —N(R^(5A))₃ ⁺X⁻, wherein X⁻is a counterion, —OC(═O)R^(5A), or —OC(═O)OR^(5A), or two R⁵ groups are joined to form an optionally substituted carbocyclic, optionally substituted heterocyclic, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl ring; wherein each occurrence of R^(5A) is independently hydrogen, methyl, optionally substituted acyl, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, a nitrogen protecting group when attached to a nitrogen atom, or an oxygen protecting group when attached to an oxygen atom, or two R^(5A) groups are joined to form an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring; and k is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5. In certain embodiments, k is 0. In certain embodiments, k is 1. In certain embodiments, k is 2. In certain embodiments, k is 3. In certain embodiments, k is 4. In certain embodiments, k is 5. In certain embodiments, R₅ is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R₅ is optionally substituted, branched or unbranched C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is unsubstituted methyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is substituted methyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is trifluoromethyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is unsubstituted ethyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is substituted ethyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is optionally substituted propyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is substituted n-propyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is unsubstituted n-propyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is substituted iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is unsubstituted iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is halogen. In certain embodiments, R₅ is I. In certain embodiments, R₅ is Br. In certain embodiments, R₅ is Cl. In certain embodiments, R₅ is F. In certain embodiments, R₅ is NO₂. In certain embodiments, R₅ is —OH. In certain embodiments, R₅ is —CN.

In compounds of Formula (I), Y is N or CH. In certain embodiments, Y is N. In certain embodiments, Y is CH. In compounds of Formula (VI), Y is N or CH. In certain embodiments, Y is N. In certain embodiments, Y is CH

In compounds of Formula (I) or (VI), linker X is a divalent linker moiety. X may contain 0-4 carbon atoms or heteroatoms in the backbone of X. X may be substituted or unsubstituted. X may be branched or unbranched. In certain embodiments, X is a bond. In certain embodiments, X is —C(═O)—. In certain embodiments, X is —O—. In certain embodiments, X is —S—. In certain embodiments, X is a substituted C₁₋₆ hydrocarbon chain. In certain embodiments, X is an unsubstituted C₁₋₆ hydrocarbon chain. In certain embodiments, X is —CH₂—. In certain embodiments, X is —(CH₂)₂—. In certain embodiments, X is —(CH₂)₃—. In certain embodiments, X is —(CH₂)₄—. In certain embodiments, X is —(CH₂)₅—. In certain embodiments, X is —(CH₂)₆—. In certain embodiments, X is an optionally substituted C₁₋₆ hydrocarbon chain, wherein one or more carbon units of the hydrocarbon chain is replaced with —O—, —S—, —NR^(Xa)—, —NR^(Xa)C(═O)—, —C(═O)NR^(Xa)—, —SC(═O)—, —C(═O)S—, —OC(═O)—, —C(═O)O—, —NR^(Xa)C(═S)—, —C(═S) NR^(Xa)—, trans-CR^(L2b)═CR^(L2b)—, cis-CR^(Xb)═CR^(Xb)—, —C≡C—, —S(═O)₂O—, —OS(═O)₂—, —S(═O)₂NR^(Xa)—, or —NR^(Xa)S(═O)₂—, wherein R^(Xa) is optionally substituted alkyl or a nitrogen protectin group; and R^(Xb) is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, X is —(C═O)(CH₂)₅—. In certain embodiments, X is —(C═O)(CH₂)₄—. In certain embodiments, X is —(C═O)(CH₂)₃—. In certain embodiments, X is —(C═O)(CH₂)₂—. In certain embodiments, X is —(C═O)CH₂—. In certain embodiments, X is —O(CH₂)₅—. In certain embodiments, X is —O(CH₂)₄—. In certain embodiments, X is —O(CH₂)₃—. In certain embodiments, X is —O(CH₂)₂—. In certain embodiments, X is —OCH₂—.

As defined generally above, R₂ is optionally substituted carbocyclic, optionally substituted heterocyclic, optionally substituted aryl, or optionally substituted heteroaryl ring. In certain embodiments, R₂ is unsubstituted. In certain embodiments, R₂ is substituted with one, two, or three R^(B1) groups. In certain embodiments, R₂ is an optionally substituted monocyclic or bicyclic carbocyclic ring. In certain embodiments, R₂ is an optionally substituted monocyclic or bicyclic heterocyclic ring with 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In certain embodiments, R₂ is an optionally substituted monocyclic or bicyclic heteroaryl ring.

In certain embodiments, R₂ is an optionally substituted monocyclic hetero-ring with 1-4 oxygen. In certain embodiments, R₂ is an optionally substituted monocyclic ring with one oxygen. In certain embodiments, R₂ is of the formula

In certain embodiments, p is 0 and R₂ is hydroxyl alkyl. In certain embodiments, p is 1. In certain embodiments, p is 2. In certain embodiments, p is 3. In certain embodiments, p is 4. In certain embodiments, q is 0 and and R₂ is hydroxyl alkyl. In certain embodiments, q is 1. In certain embodiments, q is 2. In certain embodiments, q is 3. In certain embodiments, q is 4. In certain embodiments, p is 1 and q is 1. In certain embodiments, p is 1 and q is 2. In certain embodiments, p is 1 and q is 3. In certain embodiments, p is 1 and q is 4. In certain embodiments, p is 2 and q is 2. In certain embodiments, p is 2 and q is 3. In certain embodiments, p is 2 and q is 4. In certain embodiments, p is 3 and q is 3. In certain embodiments, p is 3 and q is 4. In certain embodiments, p is 4 and q is 4. In certain embodiments, R₂ is of the formula

In certain embodiments, R₂ is an optionally substituted bicyclic hetero-ring with 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen and oxygen. In certain embodiments, R₂ is an optionally substituted bicyclic heterocyclic ring with one nitrogen and one oxygen. In certain embodiments, R₂ is of the formula

In certain embodiments, p is 1; q is 1; s is 1; and t is 1. In certain embodiments, p is 1; q is 1; s is 1; and t is 2. In certain embodiments, p is 1; q is 1; s is 1; and t is 3. In certain embodiments, p is 1; q is 1; s is 2; and t is 2. In certain embodiments, p is 1; q is 1; s is 2; t is 3. In certain embodiments, p is 1; q is 1; s is 3; and t is 3. In certain embodiments, p is 1; q is 1; s is 1; and t is 1. In certain embodiments, p is 1; q is 2; s is 1; t is 2. In certain embodiments, p is 1; q is 2; s is 1; and t is 3. In certain embodiments, p is 1; q is 2; s is 2; and t is 2. In certain embodiments, p is 1; q is 2; s is 2; and t is 3. In certain embodiments, p is 1; q is 2; s is 3; and t is 3. In certain embodiments, p is 2; q is 2; s is 1; t is 1. In certain embodiments, p is 2; q is 2; s is 1; and t is 2. In certain embodiments, p is 2; q is 2; s is 1; and t is 3. In certain embodiments, p is 2; q is 2; s is 2; and t is 2. In certain embodiments, p is 2; q is 2; s is 2; and t is 3. In certain embodiments, p is 2; q is 2; s is 3; and t is 3. In certain embodiments, R₂ is of one of the following structures:

In certain embodiments, R₂ is of the formula

In certain embodiments, R₁ is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R₁ is optionally substituted, branched or unbranched, C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R₁ is substituted methyl. In certain embodiments, R₁ is unsubstituted methyl. In certain embodiments, R₁ is substituted ethyl. In certain embodiments, R₁ is unsubstituted ethyl. In certain embodiments, R₁ is optionally substituted propyl. In certain embodiments, R₁ is substituted n-propyl. In certain embodiments, R₁ is unsubstituted n-propyl. In certain embodiments, R₁ is substituted iso-propyl. In certain embodiments, R₁ is unsubstituted iso-propyl.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (II):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₁, R₂, R₃, R₄, X, Y, m, n, and j are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (II-a):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₁, R₂, R₄, X, Y, n, and j are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (II-b):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₁, R₂, X, Y, and n are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (II-c):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, X, Y, and n are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (II-c1):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂ and Y are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (II-c2):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂ and Y are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (II-c3):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂ and Y are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (II-c4):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂ and Y are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (III):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₁, R₂, R₃, R₅, X, Y, m, n, and k are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (III-a):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₁, R₂, R₅, X, Y, n, and k are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (III-b):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, R₅, X, Y, n, and k are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (III-c):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, X, Y, and n are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (III-c1):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂ and Y are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (III-c2):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂ and Y are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (III-c3):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂ and Y are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (III-c4):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂ and Y are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (IV):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₁, R₂, R₃, X, Y, m, and n are as described herein, and Z₁ is branched or unbranched, acyclic or cyclic C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, Z₁ is acyclic C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, Z₁ is cyclic C₁₋₆ alkyl.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (IV-a):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₁, R₂, X, Y, Z₁, and n are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (IV-a1):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, n, X, Y, and Z₁ are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (IV-a1-i):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, Y, and Z₁ are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (IV-a1-ii):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, Y, and Z₁ are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (IV-a1-iii):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, Y, and Z₁ are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (IV-a1-iv):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, Y, and Z₁ are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (IV-b):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₁, R₂, X, Y, and n are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (IV-b1):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, n, X, Y, and Z₁ are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (IV-b1-i):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, Y, and Z₁ are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (IV-b1-ii):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, Y, and Z₁ are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (IV-b1-iii):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, Y, and Z₁ are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (IV-b1-iv):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, Y, and Z₁ are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (V):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₁, R₂, R₃, X, Y, e, f, m, and n are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (V-a):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₁, R₂, X, Y, e, f, and n are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (V-a1):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, X, Y, n, e and f are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (V-a1-i):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, Y, e and f are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (V-a1-ii):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, Y, e and f are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (V-a1-iii):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, Y, e and f are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (V-a1-iv):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, Y, e and f are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (V-b):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₁, R₂, X, Y, n, e and f are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (V-b1):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, X, Y, n, e and f are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (V-b1-i):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, Y, e and f are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (V-b1-ii):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, Y, e and f are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (V-b1-iii):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, Y, e and f are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the Formula (V-b1-iv):

or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein R₂, Y, e and f are as described herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of the invention is

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of the invention is

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (VI) is

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (VI) is

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

Exemplary compounds of Formula (I) include but not limited to

Other exemplary compounds of the invention include but not limited to

Compounds of the invention may be crystalline. In certain embodiments, the compounds of the invention are monocrystalline. In certain embodiments, the compounds of the invention are polycrystalline.

Compounds of the invention may also have a relatively low aqueous solubility (i.e., a solubility in water, optionally with one or more buffers). For example, compounds of the invention may have an aqueous solubility of less than about or equal to about 3 mg/mL, less than about 1 mg/mL, less than about 0.3 mg/mL, less than about 0.1 mg/mL, less than about 0.03 mg/mL, less than about 0.01 mg/mL, less than about 1 μg/mL, less than about 0.1 μg/mL, less than about 0.01 μg/mL, less than about 1 ng/mL, less than about 0.1 ng/mL, or less than about 0.01 ng/mL at 25° C. In some embodiments, the compounds of the invention have an aqueous solubility of at least about 1 pg/mL, at least about 10 pg/mL, at least about 0.1 ng/mL, at least about 1 ng/mL, at least about 10 ng/mL, at least about 0.1 μg/mL, at least about 1 μg/mL, at least about 3 μg/mL, at least about 0.01 mg/mL, at least about 0.03 mg/mL, at least about 0.1 mg/mL, at least about 0.3 mg/mL, at least about 1.0 mg/mL, or at least about 3 mg/mL at 25° C. Combinations of the above-noted ranges are possible (e.g., an aqueous solubility of at least about 10 pg/mL and less than about 1 mg/mL). Other ranges are also possible. The compounds of the invention may have these or other ranges of aqueous solubilities at any point throughout the pH range (e.g., at about pH 7 or from pH 1 to pH 14).

Compounds of the invention may be suitable for being processed into mucus-penetrating pharmaceutical compositions (e.g., particles or crystals). In certain embodiments, the compounds of the invention are suitable for milling (e.g., nano-milling). In certain embodiments, the compounds of the invention are suitable for precipitation (e.g., microprecipitation, nanoprecipitation, crystallization, or controlled crystallization). In certain embodiments, the compounds of the invention are suitable for emulsification. In certain embodiments, the compounds of the invention are suitable for freeze-drying.

Synthetic Methods

In some embodiments, compounds described herein can be prepared using methods shown in Scheme 1:

Pharmaceutical Compositions, Kits, and Methods of Use

The present invention provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising a compound described herein, e.g., a compound of Formula (I) or a compound of Formula (VI), or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, as described herein, and optionally a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. It will be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art that the compounds described herein, or salts thereof, may be present as hydrates, solvates, or polymorphs. In certain embodiments, a provided composition comprises two or more compounds described herein. In certain embodiments, a compound described herein, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, is provided in an effective amount in the pharmaceutical composition. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is a therapeutically effective amount. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is an amount effective for treating a disease. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is an amount effective for treating a growth factor-mediated disease. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is an amount effective for treating a VEGF-mediated disease. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is a prophylactically effective amount. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is an amount effective for treating a growth factor-mediated disease. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is an amount effective to prevent a VEGF-mediated disease. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is an amount effective to treat an abnormal angiogenesis-associated disease such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, tumor growth, inflammation, rheumatoid arthritis, wet-form macular degeneration, choroidal neovascularization, retinal neovascularization, and diabetic retinopathy. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is an amount effective to treat cancer. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is an amount effective to treat macular degeneration.

Pharmaceutical compositions described herein can be prepared by any method known in the art of pharmacology. In general, such preparatory methods include the steps of bringing a compound described herein (the “active ingredient”) into association with a carrier and/or one or more other accessory ingredients, and then, if necessary and/or desirable, shaping and/or packaging the product into a desired single- or multi-dose unit.

In certain embodiments, an effective amount of a compound for administration one or more times a day to a 70 kg adult human may comprise about 0.0001 mg to about 3000 mg, about 0.0001 mg to about 2000 mg, about 0.0001 mg to about 1000 mg, about 0.001 mg to about 1000 mg, about 0.01 mg to about 1000 mg, about 0.1 mg to about 1000 mg, about 1 mg to about 1000 mg, about 1 mg to about 100 mg, about 10 mg to about 1000 mg, about 10 mg to about 100 mg, or about 100 mg to about 1000 mg of a compound per unit dosage form.

Also encompassed by the present disclosure are kits (e.g., pharmaceutical packs). The kits provided may comprise a provided pharmaceutical composition or compound and a container (e.g., a vial, ampule, bottle, syringe, and/or dispenser package, or other suitable container). In some embodiments, provided kits may optionally further include a second container comprising a pharmaceutical excipient for dilution or suspension of a provided pharmaceutical composition or compound. In some embodiments, a provided pharmaceutical composition or compound provided in the container and the second container are combined to form one unit dosage form. In some embodiments, a provided kit further includes instructions for use.

Also provided by the present invention are particles that may penetrate mucus, pharmaceutical compositions thereof, kits, and methods of using and preparing the particles, and pharmaceutical compositions thereof. The pharmaceutical compositions, kits, and methods may involve modifying the surface coatings of particles, such as particles of pharmaceutical agents that have a low aqueous solubility. Such pharmaceutical compositions, kits, and methods can be used to achieve efficient transport of particles comprising the inventive compounds through mucus barriers in a subject.

In certain embodiments, the compounds, particles, pharmaceutical compositions, kits, and methods of the invention are useful for applications in the eye, such as treating and/or preventing an ocular disease (e.g., macular degeneration, dry eye syndrome, uveitis, allergic conjunctivitis, glaucoma, and rosacea).

The particles (e.g., nanoparticles and microparticles) of the invention comprise a compound of the invention. The particles of the invention also include a surface-altering agent that modifies the surface of the particles to reduce the adhesion of the particles to mucus and/or to facilitate penetration of the particles through mucus.

The present invention also provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising the inventive particles. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention can be topically administered to the eye of a subject. Topical pharmaceutical compositions are advantageous over pharmaceutical compositions that are administered by injection or orally.

Particles

The present invention also provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising a plurality of particles of the invention, which may be mucus-penetrating and may include a pharmaceutical agent (e.g., a compound of the invention). The inventive pharmaceutical compositions may be useful to deliver the pharmaceutical agent to the eye of a subject and to treat and/or prevent an ocular disease of the subject.

Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that conventional particles (CPs, e.g., non-MPPs) are trapped in the mucus layer (e.g., eye mucin) and are readily cleared from the subject. Thus, the conventional particles may be cleared before the drugs contained in the particles can be transported to target tissue or site (e.g., by diffusion or other mechanisms). In contrast, the particles of compounds of the invention formulated as mucus-penetrating particles may avoid adhesion to secreted mucins, thereby prolonging particle retention and sustaining drug release.

In some embodiments, the particles of the invention have a core-shell type configuration. The core may comprise the solid pharmaceutical agent (including but not limited to pharmaceutical agents having a relatively low aqueous solubility), or may comprise a pharmaceutical agent and a polymeric carrier, a lipid, and/or a protein. The core may also comprise a gel or a liquid. The core may be coated with a coating or shell comprising a surface-altering agent that facilitates mobility of the particle in mucus. As described in more detail below, the surface-altering agent may comprise a polymer (e.g., a synthetic or a natural polymer) having pendant hydroxyl groups on the backbone of the polymer. The molecular weight and/or degree of hydrolysis of the polymer may be chosen to impart certain transport characteristics to the particles, such as increased transport through mucus. In certain embodiments, the surface-altering agent may comprise a triblock copolymer comprising a (hydrophilic block)-(hydrophobic block)-(hydrophilic block) configuration. The molecular weights of each one of the blocks may be chosen to impart certain transport characteristics to the particles, such as increased transport through mucus. In some embodiments, at least one particle of the invention includes a core and a coating surrounding the core. A particle including a core and a coating on the core is referred to as a “coated particle.” In certain embodiments, at least one particle of the invention includes a core but not a coating on the core. A particle including a core but not a coating on the core is referred to as an “uncoated particle.”

In some embodiments, a substantial portion of the core is formed of one or more solid pharmaceutical agents (e.g., a compound of the invention) that can lead to certain beneficial and/or therapeutic effects. The core may be, for example, a nanocrystal (i.e., a nanocrystalline particle) of a compound of Formula (I) or a compound of Formula (VI). In certain embodiments, the core includes a polymeric carrier with a compound of Formula (I) or Formula (VI), and optionally with one or more other pharmaceutical agents encapsulated or otherwise associated with the core. In certain embodiments, the core includes a lipid, protein, gel, liquid, and/or another suitable material to be delivered to a subject. The core includes a surface to which one or more surface-altering agents can be attached. In some embodiments, the core is surrounded by coating, which includes an inner surface and an outer surface. The coating may be formed, at least in part, of one or more surface-altering agents, such as a polymer (e.g., a block copolymer and/or a polymer having pendant hydroxyl groups), which may associate with the surface of the core. The surface-altering agent may be associated with the core particle by, for example, being covalently attached to the core particle, non-covalently attached to the core particle, adsorbed to the core, or attached to the core through ionic interactions, hydrophobic and/or hydrophilic interactions, electrostatic interactions, van der Waals interactions, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the surface-altering agents, or portions thereof, are chosen to facilitate transport of the particle through or into a mucosal barrier (e.g., mucus or a mucosal membrane). In certain embodiments described herein, one or more surface-altering agents are oriented in a particular configuration in the coating. In some embodiments, in which a surface-altering agent is a triblock copolymer, such as a triblock copolymer having a (hydrophilic block)-(hydrophobic block)-(hydrophilic block) configuration, a hydrophobic block may be oriented towards the surface of the core, and hydrophilic blocks may be oriented away from the core surface (e.g., towards the exterior of the particle). The hydrophilic blocks may have characteristics that facilitate transport of the particle through a mucosal barrier, as described in more detail below.

It should be understood that components and configurations other than those described herein may be suitable for certain particles and pharmaceutical compositions, and that not all of the components described are necessarily present in some embodiments.

In some embodiments, particles of the invention comprising compounds of Formula (I) or Formula (VI), when introduced into a subject, may interact with one or more components in the subject such as mucus, cells, tissues, organs, particles, fluids (e.g., blood), microorganisms, and portions or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the coating of the inventive particle can be designed to include surface-altering agents or other components with properties that allow favorable interactions (e.g., transport, binding, and adsorption) with one or more materials from the subject. For example, the coating may include surface-altering agents or other components having a certain hydrophilicity, hydrophobicity, surface charge, functional group, specificity for binding, and/or density to facilitate or reduce particular interactions in the subject. One example is choosing a hydrophilicity, hydrophobicity, surface charge, functional group, specificity for binding, and/or density of one or more surface-altering agents to reduce the physical and/or chemical interactions between the particle and mucus of the subject, so as to enhance the mobility of the particle through mucus. Other examples are described in more detail below.

In some embodiments, once a particle is successfully transported into and/or across a mucosal barrier (e.g., mucus or a mucosal membrane) in a subject, further interactions between the particle and the subject may take place. In some embodiments, in which the core comprises a pharmaceutical agent or compound of the invention, the conversion, breakdown, release, and/or transport of the pharmaceutical agent from the particle can lead to certain beneficial and/or therapeutic effects in the subject. Therefore, the particles of the invention can be used for the treatment and/or prevention of certain diseases.

Examples for the use of the particles of the invention are provided below in the context of being suitable for administration to a mucosal barrier (e.g., mucus or a mucosal membrane) in a subject. It should be appreciated that while many of the embodiments herein are described in this context, and in the context of providing a benefit for diseases that involve transport of materials across a mucosal barrier, the invention is not limited as such, and the particles, pharmaceutical compositions, and kits of the invention may be used to treat and/or prevent other diseases.

In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention comprise MPPs that include a compound of the invention and optionally at least one additional pharmaceutical agent, each of which is associated with polymer carriers via encapsulation or other processes. In other embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention comprise MPPs without any polymeric carriers or with minimal use of polymeric carriers. Polymer-based MPPs may have one or more inherent limitations in some embodiments. In particular, in light of drug delivery applications, these limitations may include one or more of the following. A) Low drug encapsulation efficiency and low drug loading: encapsulation of drugs into polymeric particles is often inefficient, as generally less than 10% of the total amount of drug used gets encapsulated into particles during manufacturing; additionally, drug loadings above 50% are rarely achieved. B) Convenience of usage: pharmaceutical compositions based on drug-loaded polymeric particles, in general, typically need to be stored as dry powder to avoid premature drug release and thus require either point-of-use re-constitution or a sophisticated dosing device. C) Biocompatibility: accumulation of slowly degrading polymer carriers following repeated dosing and their toxicity over the long term present a major concern for polymeric drug carriers. D) Chemical and physical stability: polymer degradation may compromise stability of encapsulated drugs. In many encapsulation processes, the drug undergoes a transition from a solution phase to a solid phase, which is not well-controlled in terms of physical form of the emerging solid phase (i.e., amorphous vs. crystalline vs. crystalline polymorphs); this is a concern for multiple aspects of pharmaceutical composition performance, including physical and chemical stability and release kinetics. E) Manufacturing complexity: manufacturing, especially scalability, of drug-loaded polymeric MPPs is a fairly complex process that may involve multiple steps and a considerable amount of toxic organic solvents. Therefore, by avoiding or minimizing the need to encapsulate pharmaceutical agents into polymeric carriers, certain limitations of polymeric MPPs with respect to drug loading, convenience of usage, biocompatibility, stability, and/or complexity of manufacturing, may be addressed.

It should be appreciated, however, that in other embodiments, pharmaceutical agents may be associated with polymer carriers via encapsulation or other processes. Thus, the description provided herein is not limited in this respect. For instance, despite the above-mentioned drawbacks of certain mucus-penetrating particles including a polymeric carrier, in certain embodiments such particles may be preferred. For example, it may be preferable to use polymer carriers for controlled release purposes and/or for encapsulating certain pharmaceutical agents that are difficult to formulate into particles. As such, in some embodiments described herein, particles that include a polymer carrier are described.

In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention involve the use of poly(vinyl alcohols) (PVAs) to aid particle transport in mucus. The pharmaceutical compositions may involve making mucus-penetrating particles by, for example, an emulsification process in the presence of specific PVAs. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions and methods involve making mucus-penetrating particles from pre-fabricated particles by non-covalent coating with specific PVAs. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions and methods involve making mucus-penetrating particles in the presence of specific PVAs without any polymeric carriers or with minimal use of polymeric carriers. It should be appreciated, however, that in other embodiments, polymeric carriers can be used.

PVA is a water-soluble non-ionic synthetic polymer. Due to its surface active properties, PVA is widely used in the food and drug industries as a stabilizing agent for emulsions and, in particular, to enable encapsulation of a wide variety of compounds by emulsification techniques. PVA has the “generally recognized as safe” (GRAS) status with the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and has been used in auricular, intramuscular, intraocular, intravitreal, iontophoretic, ophthalmic, oral, topical, and transdermal drug products and/or drug delivery systems. Mucus-penetrating particles can be prepared by tailoring the degree of hydrolysis and/or molecular weight of the PVA, which was previously unknown. This discovery significantly broadens the arsenal of techniques and ingredients applicable for manufacturing MPPs.

In other embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention and the methods of making the particles and pharmaceutical compositions of the invention involve PVAs in conjunction with other polymers or do not involve PVAs at all. For example, PEG and/or PLURONICS® (poloxamers) may be included in the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention and methods of making the particles and pharmaceutical compositions of the invention, in addition to or in replace of PVAs. Other polymers, such as those described herein, may also be used.

Core of the Particles

Particles of compounds of Formula (I) or (VI) of the invention formulated to penetrate mucus include a core. The core of the inventive particles may be formed of any suitable material, such as an organic material, inorganic material, polymer, lipid, protein, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the core is a solid. The solid may be, for example, a crystalline, semi-crystalline, or amorphous solid, such as a crystalline, semi-crystalline, or amorphous solid of a compound of Formula (I) or (VI) of the invention), or a salt thereof. In certain embodiments, the core is a gel or liquid (e.g., an oil-in-water or water-in-oil emulsion). In certain embodiment, the core is a nanocrystal.

The compound of the invention may be present in the core in any suitable amount, (e.g., at least about 80 wt % and less than about 100 wt % of the core). Other ranges are also possible.

In certain embodiments, the core of the particles of the invention is hydrophobic. In certain embodiments, the core is substantially hydrophobic. In certain embodiments, the core is hydrophilic. In certain embodiments, the core is substantially hydrophilic.

In some embodiments, the core includes one or more organic materials, such as a synthetic polymer and/or natural polymer. Examples of synthetic polymers include non-degradable polymers (e.g., polymethacrylate) and degradable polymers (e.g., polylactic acid and polyglycolic acid), and copolymers thereof. Examples of natural polymers include hyaluronic acid, chitosan, and collagen. Other examples of polymers that may be suitable for portions of the core include those suitable for forming coatings on particles, as described herein. In some cases, the one or more polymers present in the core may be used to encapsulate or adsorb one or more pharmaceutical agents.

When a polymer is present in the core, the polymer may be present in the core in any suitable amount, e.g., less than about 100 wt %, less than about 80 wt %, less than about 60 wt %, less than about 50 wt %, less than about 40 wt %, less than about 30 wt %, less than about 20 wt %, less than about 10 wt %, less than about 5 wt %, or less than about 1 wt %. In some cases, the polymer may be present in an amount of at least about 1 wt %, at least about 5 wt %, at least about 10 wt %, at least about 20 wt %, at least about 30 wt %, at least about 40 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, or at least about 99 wt % in the core. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., present in an amount of at least about 1 wt % and less than about 20 wt %). Other ranges are also possible. In some embodiments, the core is substantially free of a polymeric component.

The core may have any suitable shape and/or size. For instance, the core may be substantially spherical, non-spherical, oval, rod-shaped, pyramidal, cube-like, disk-shaped, wire-like, or irregularly shaped. The core may have a largest or smallest cross-sectional dimension of, for example, less than about 10 μm, less than about 3 μm, less than about 1 μm, less than about 500 nm, less than 400 nm, less than 300 nm, less than about 200 nm, less than about 100 nm, less than about 30 nm, or less than about 10 nm. In some cases, the core may have a largest or smallest cross-sectional dimension of, for example, at least about 10 nm, at least about 30 nm, at least about 100 nm, at least about 200 nm, at least about 300 nm, at least about 400 nm, at least about 500 nm, at least about 1 μm, or at least about 3 μm. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., a largest or smallest cross-sectional dimension of at least about 30 nm and less than about 500 nm). Other ranges are also possible. In some embodiments, the sizes of the cores formed by a process described herein have a Gaussian-type distribution. Unless indicated otherwise, the measurements of the particle sizes or core sizes refer to the smallest cross-sectional dimension.

Techniques to determine sizes (e.g., smallest or largest cross-sectional dimensions) of particles are known in the art. Examples of suitable techniques include dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, electroresistance counting and laser diffraction. Although many methods for determining sizes of particles are known, the sizes described herein (e.g., average particle sizes and thicknesses) refer to ones measured by DLS.

Coating of the Particles

A particle of the invention may include a coating. An inventive particle comprising a compound of Formula (I) or (VI) including a coating may be referred to as a coated particle of the invention. An inventive particle not including a coating may be referred to as an uncoated particle of the invention. In some embodiments, the coating is formed of one or more surface-altering agents or other molecules disposed on the surface of the core. The particular chemical makeup and/or components of the coating and surface-altering agent(s) can be chosen so as to impart certain functionality to the particles, such as enhanced transport through mucosal barriers.

It should be understood that a coating which surrounds a core need not completely surround the core, although such embodiments may be possible. For example, the coating may surround at least about 10%, at least about 30%, at least about 50%, at least about 70%, at least about 90%, or at least about 99% of the surface area of a core. In some cases, the coating substantially surrounds a core. In other cases, the coating completely surrounds a core. In other embodiments, a coating surrounds less than about 100%, less than about 90%, less than about 70%, or less than about 50% of the surface area of a core. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., surrounding at least 70% and less than 100% of the surface area of a core).

The material of the coating may be distributed evenly across a surface of the core in some cases, and unevenly in other cases. For example, the coating may include portions (e.g., holes) that do not include any material. If desired, the coating may be designed to allow penetration and/or transport of certain molecules and components into or out of the coating, but may prevent penetration and/or transport of other molecules and components into or out of the coating. The ability of certain molecules to penetrate and/or be transported into and/or across a coating may depend on, for example, the packing density of the surface-altering agents forming the coating and the chemical and physical properties of the components forming the coating. As described herein, the coating may include one layer of material (i.e., a monolayer) or multilayers of materials. A single type or multiple types of surface-altering agent may be present.

The coating of particles of the invention can have any suitable thickness. For example, the coating may have an average thickness of at least about 1 nm, at least about 3 nm, at least about 10 nm, at least about 30 nm, at least about 100 nm, at least about 300 nm, at least about 1 μm, or at least about 3 μm. In some cases, the average thickness of the coating is less than about 3 μm, less than about 1 μm, less than about 300 nm, less than about 100 nm, less than about 30 nm, less than about 10 nm, or less than about 3 nm. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., an average thickness of at least about 1 nm and less than about 100 nm). Other ranges are also possible. For particles having multiple coatings, each coating may have one of the thicknesses described herein.

The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may allow for the coating of the particles of the invention with hydrophilic surface-altering moieties without requiring covalent association of the surface-altering moieties to the surface of the core. In some embodiments, the core having a hydrophobic surface is coated with a polymer described herein, thereby causing a plurality of surface-altering moieties to be on the surface of the core without substantially altering the characteristics of the core itself. For example, the surface altering agent may be present on (e.g., adsorbed to) the outer surface of the core. In other embodiments, a surface-altering agent is covalently linked to the core.

In certain embodiments in which the surface-altering agent is adsorbed onto a surface of the core, the surface-altering agent may be in equilibrium with other molecules of the surface-altering agent in solution, optionally with other components (e.g., in a pharmaceutical composition). In some cases, the adsorbed surface-altering agent may be present on the surface of the core at a density described herein. The density may be an average density as the surface altering agent is in equilibrium with other components in solution.

The coating and/or surface-altering agent of the particles of the invention may comprise any suitable material, such as a hydrophobic material, a hydrophilic material, and/or an amphiphilic material. In some embodiments, the coating includes a polymer. In certain embodiments, the polymer is a synthetic polymer (i.e., a polymer not produced in nature). In other embodiments, the polymer is a natural polymer (e.g., a protein, polysaccharide, or rubber). In certain embodiments, the polymer is a surface active polymer. In certain embodiments, the polymer is a non-ionic polymer. In certain embodiments, the polymer is a linear synthetic non-ionic polymer. In certain embodiments, the polymer is a non-ionic block copolymer. The polymer may be a copolymer. In certain embodiments, one repeat unit of the copolymer is relatively hydrophobic and another repeat unit of the copolymer is relatively hydrophilic. The copolymer may be, for example, a diblock, triblock, alternating, or random copolymer. The polymer may be charged or uncharged.

In some embodiments, the coating of the particles of the invention comprises a synthetic polymer having pendant hydroxyl groups on the backbone of the polymer. Examples of the synthetic polymer are as described herein. Without wishing to be bound by theory, a particle including a coating comprising a synthetic polymer having pendant hydroxyl groups on the backbone of the polymer may have reduced mucoadhesion as compared to a control particle due to, at least in part, the display of a plurality of hydroxyl groups on the particle surface. One possible mechanism for the reduced mucoadhesion is that the hydroxyl groups alter the microenvironment of the particle, for example, by ordering water and other molecules in the particle/mucus environment. An additional or alternative possible mechanism is that the hydroxyl groups shield the adhesive domains of the mucin fibers, thereby reducing particle adhesion and speeding up particle transport.

Moreover, the ability of a particle coated with a synthetic polymer having pendant hydroxyl groups on the backbone of the polymer to be mucus penetrating may also depend, at least in part, on the degree of hydrolysis of the polymer. In some embodiments, the hydrophobic portions of the polymer (e.g., portions of the polymer that are not hydrolyzed) allow the polymer to be adhered to the surface of the core (e.g., in the case that the surface of the core is hydrophobic), thus allowing for a strong association between the core and polymer. A synthetic polymer having pendant hydroxyl groups on the backbone of the polymer may have any suitable degree of hydrolysis (and, therefore, varying amounts of hydroxyl groups). The appropriate level of hydrolysis may depend on additional factors, such as the molecular weight of the polymer, the pharmaceutical composition of the core, and the hydrophobicity of the core. In some embodiments, the synthetic polymer is at least about 30% hydrolyzed, at least about 40% hydrolyzed, at least about 50% hydrolyzed, at least about 60% hydrolyzed, at least about 70% hydrolyzed, at least about 80% hydrolyzed, at least about 90% hydrolyzed, or at least about 95% hydrolyzed. In some embodiments, the synthetic polymer is less than about 100% hydrolyzed, less than about 95% hydrolyzed, less than about 90% hydrolyzed, less than about 80% hydrolyzed, less than about 70% hydrolyzed, or less than about 60% hydrolyzed. Combinations of the above-mentioned ranges are also possible (e.g., a synthetic polymer that is at least about 80% and less than about 95% hydrolyzed). Other ranges are also possible.

The molecular weight of the synthetic polymer described herein (e.g., one having pendant hydroxyl groups on the backbone of the polymer) may be selected so as to reduce the mucoadhesion of a core and to ensure sufficient association of the polymer with the core. In certain embodiments, the molecular weight of the synthetic polymer is at least about 1 kDa, at least about 2 kDa, at least about 5 kDa, at least about 8 kDa, at least about 9 kDa, at least about 10 kDa, at least about 12 kDa, at least about 15 kDa at least about 20 kDa, at least about 25 kDa, at least about 30 kDa, at least about 40 kDa, at least about 50 kDa, at least about 60 kDa, at least about 70 kDa, at least about 80 kDa, at least about 90 kDa, at least about 100 kDa at least about 110 kDa, at least about 120 kDa, at least about 130 kDa, at least about 140 kDa, at least about 150 kDa, at least about 200 kDa, at least about 500 kDa, or at least about 1000 kDa. In some embodiments, the molecular weight of the synthetic polymer is less than about 1000 kDa, less than about 500 kDa, less than about 200 kDa, less than about, less than about 150 kDa, less than about 130 kDa, less than about 120 kDa, less than about 100 kDa, less than about 85 kDa, less than about 70 kDa, less than about 65 kDa, less than about 60 kDa, less than about 50 kDa, or less than about 40 kDa, less than about 30 kDa, less than about 20 kDa, less than about 15 kDa, or less than about 10 kDa. Combinations of the above-mentioned ranges are also possible (e.g., a molecular weight of at least about 10 kDa and less than about 30 kDa). The above-mentioned molecular weight ranges can also be combined with the above-mentioned hydrolysis ranges to form suitable polymers.

In some embodiments, the synthetic polymer described herein is or comprises PVA. In some embodiments, the synthetic polymer described herein is or comprises partially hydrolyzed PVA. Partially hydrolyzed PVA includes two types of repeating units: vinyl alcohol units and residual vinyl acetate units. The vinyl alcohol units are relatively hydrophilic, and the vinyl acetate units are relatively hydrophobic. In some instances, the sequence distribution of vinyl alcohol units and vinyl acetate units is blocky. For example, a series of vinyl alcohol units may be followed by a series of vinyl acetate units, and followed by more vinyl alcohol units to form a polymer having a mixed block-copolymer type arrangement, with units distributed in a blocky manner. In certain embodiments, the repeat units form a copolymer, e.g., a diblock, triblock, alternating, or random copolymer. Polymers other than PVA may also have these configurations of hydrophilic units and hydrophobic units.

In some embodiments, the hydrophilic units of the synthetic polymer described herein are substantially present at the outer surface of the particles of the invention. For example, the hydrophilic units may form a majority of the outer surface of the coating and may help stabilize the particles in an aqueous solution containing the particles. The hydrophobic units may be substantially present in the interior of the coating and/or at the surface of the core, e.g., to facilitate attachment of the coating to the core.

The molar fraction of the relatively hydrophilic units and the relatively hydrophobic units of the synthetic polymer described herein may be selected so as to reduce the mucoadhesion of a core and to ensure sufficient association of the polymer with the core, respectively. As described herein, the molar fraction of the hydrophobic units of the polymer may be chosen such that adequate association of the polymer with the core occurs, thereby increasing the likelihood that the polymer remains adhered to the core. The molar fraction of the relatively hydrophilic units to the relatively hydrophobic units of the synthetic polymer may be, for example, at least 0.5:1, at least 1:1, at least 2:1, at least 3:1, at least 5:1, at least 10:1, at least 20:1, at least 30:1, at least 50:1, or at least 100:1. In some embodiments, the molar fraction of the relatively hydrophilic units to the relatively hydrophobic units of the synthetic polymer may be, for example, less than 100:1, less than 50:1, less than 30:1, less than 20:1, less than 10:1, less than 5:1, less than 3:1, less than 2:1, or less than 1:1. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., a ratio of at least 1:1 and less than 50:1). Other ranges are also possible.

The molecular weight of the PVA polymer may also be tailored to increase the effectiveness of the polymer to render particles mucus penetrating. Examples of PVA polymers having various molecular weights and degree of hydrolysis are shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Molecular weight (MW) and degree of hydrolysis of various poly(vinyl alcohols) (PVAs).^(a) MW Hydrolysis degree PVA (kDa) (%)  2K75  2 75-79  9K80  9-10 80 13K87 13-23 87-89 13K98 13-23 98 31K87 31-50 87-89 31K98 31-50 98-99 57K86 57-60 86-89 85K87  85-124 87-89 85K99  85-124  99+ 95K95  95 95 105K80  104 80 130K87  130 87-89 ^(a)The values of the molecular weight and hydrolysis degree of the PVAs were provided by the manufacturers of the PVAs.

In certain embodiments, the synthetic polymer is represented by the formula:

wherein:

u is an integer between 0 and 22730, inclusive; and

v is an integer between 0 and 11630, inclusive.

In some embodiments, the particles of the invention include a coating comprising a block copolymer having a relatively hydrophilic block and a relatively hydrophobic block. In some cases, the hydrophilic blocks may be substantially present at the outer surface of the particle. For example, the hydrophilic blocks may form a majority of the outer surface of the coating and may help stabilize the particle in an aqueous solution containing the particle. The hydrophobic block may be substantially present in the interior of the coating and/or at the surface of the core, e.g., to facilitate attachment of the coating to the core. In some embodiments, the coating comprises a surface-altering agent including a triblock copolymer, wherein the triblock copolymer comprises a (hydrophilic block)-(hydrophobic block)-(hydrophilic block) configuration. Diblock copolymers having a (hydrophilic block)-(hydrophobic block) configuration are also possible. Combinations of block copolymers with other polymers suitable for use as coatings are also possible. Non-linear block configurations are also possible such as in comb, brush, or star copolymers. In some embodiments, the relatively hydrophilic block includes a synthetic polymer having pendant hydroxyl groups on the backbone of the polymer (e.g., PVA).

The molecular weight of the hydrophilic blocks and the hydrophobic blocks of the block copolymers described herein may be selected so as to reduce the mucoadhesion of a core and to ensure sufficient association of the block copolymer with the core, respectively. The molecular weight of the hydrophobic block of the block copolymer may be chosen such that adequate association of the block copolymer with the core occurs, thereby increasing the likelihood that the block copolymer remains adhered to the core.

In certain embodiments, the molecular weight of each block of or combined blocks of the (one or more) relatively hydrophobic blocks of a block copolymer is at least about 0.5 kDa, at least about 1 kDa, at least about 1.8 kDa, at least about 2 kDa, at least about 3 kDa, at least about 4 kDa, at least about 5 kDa, at least about 6 kDa, at least about 10 kDa, at least about 12 kDa, at least about 15 kDa, at least about 20 kDa, or at least about 50 kDa, at least about 60 kDa, at least about 70 kDa, at least about 80 kDa, at least about 90 kDa, at least about 100 kDa at least about 110 kDa, at least about 120 kDa, at least about 130 kDa, at least about 140 kDa, at least about 150 kDa, at least about 200 kDa, at least about 500 kDa, or at least about 1000 kDa. In some embodiments, the molecular weight of each block of or combined blocks of the (one or more) relatively hydrophobic blocks is less than about 1000 kDa, less than about 500 kDa, less than about 200 kDa, less than about 150 kDa, less than about 140 kDa, less than about 130 kDa, less than about 120 kDa, less than about 110 kDa, less than about 100 kDa, less than about 90 kDa, less than about 80 kDa, less than about 50 kDa, less than about 20 kDa, less than about 15 kDa, less than about 13 kDa, less than about 12 kDa, less than about 10 kDa, less than about 8 kDa, or less than about 6 kDa. Combinations of the above-mentioned ranges are also possible (e.g., at least about 3 kDa and less than about 15 kDa). Other ranges are also possible.

In some embodiments, the combined relatively hydrophilic blocks (e.g., two hydrophilic blocks of a triblock copolymer) of a block copolymer (e.g., a triblock copolymer) constitute at least about 10 wt %, at least about 20 wt %, at least about 30 wt %, at least about 40 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 60 wt %, or at least about 70 wt % of the block copolymer. In some embodiments, the combined (one or more) relatively hydrophilic blocks of a block copolymer constitute less than about 90 wt %, less than about 80 wt %, less than about 60 wt %, less than about 50 wt %, or less than about 40 wt % of the block copolymer. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., at least about 30 wt % and less than about 70 wt %). Other ranges are also possible.

In some embodiments, the molecular weight of each block of or combined blocks of the (one or more) relatively hydrophilic blocks of the block copolymer may be at least about 0.5 kDa, at least about 1 kDa, at least about 1.8 kDa, at least about 2 kDa, at least about 3 kDa, at least about 4 kDa, at least about 5 kDa, at least about 6 kDa, at least about 10 kDa, at least about 12 kDa, at least about 15 kDa, at least about 20 kDa, or at least about 50 kDa, at least about 60 kDa, at least about 70 kDa, at least about 80 kDa, at least about 90 kDa, at least about 100 kDa at least about 110 kDa, at least about 120 kDa, at least about 130 kDa, at least about 140 kDa, at least about 150 kDa, at least about 200 kDa, at least about 500 kDa, or at least about 1000 kDa. In certain embodiments, the molecular weight of each block of or combined blocks of the (one or more) relatively hydrophilic blocks is less than about 1000 kDa, less than about 500 kDa, less than about 200 kDa, less than about 150 kDa, less than about 140 kDa, less than about 130 kDa, less than about 120 kDa, less than about 110 kDa, less than about 100 kDa, less than about 90 kDa, less than about 80 kDa, less than about 50 kDa, less than about 20 kDa, less than about 15 kDa, less than about 13 kDa, less than about 12 kDa, less than about 10 kDa, less than about 8 kDa, less than about 6 kDa, less than about 5 kDa, less than about 3 kDa, less than about 2 kDa, or less than about 1 kDa. Combinations of the above-mentioned ranges are also possible (e.g., at least about 0.5 kDa and less than about 3 kDa). Other ranges are also possible. In embodiments in which two hydrophilic blocks flank a hydrophobic block, the molecular weights of the two hydrophilic blocks may be substantially the same or different.

In certain embodiments, the polymer of the surface-altering agent includes a polyether portion. In certain embodiments, the polymer includes a polyalkylether portion. In certain embodiments, the polymer includes polyethylene glycol (PEG) tails. In certain embodiments, the polymer includes a polypropylene glycol as the central portion. In certain embodiments, the polymer includes polybutylene glycol as the central portion. In certain embodiments, the polymer includes polypentylene glycol as the central portion. In certain embodiments, the polymer includes polyhexylene glycol as the central portion. In certain embodiments, the polymer is a triblock copolymer of one of the polymers described herein. In some embodiments, a diblock or triblock copolymer comprises a synthetic polymer having pendant hydroxyl groups on the backbone of the polymer (e.g., PVA) as one or more of the blocks (with varying degrees of hydrolysis and varying molecular weights as described herein). The synthetic polymer blocks may form the central portion or end portions of the block copolymer.

In certain embodiments, the polymer is a triblock copolymer of a polyalkyl ether (e.g., polyethylene glycol, polypropylene glycol) and another polymer (e.g., a synthetic polymer having pendant hydroxyl groups on the backbone of the polymer (e.g., PVA). In certain embodiments, the polymer is a triblock copolymer of a polyalkyl ether and another polyalkyl ether. In certain embodiments, the polymer is a triblock copolymer of polyethylene glycol and another polyalkyl ether. In certain embodiments, the polymer is a triblock copolymer of polypropylene glycol and another polyalkyl ether. In certain embodiments, the polymer is a triblock copolymer with at least one unit of polyalkyl ether. In certain embodiments, the polymer is a triblock copolymer of two different polyalkyl ethers. In certain embodiments, the polymer is a triblock copolymer including a polyethylene glycol unit. In certain embodiments, the polymer is a triblock copolymer including a polypropylene glycol unit. In certain embodiments, the polymer is a triblock copolymer of a more hydrophobic unit flanked by two more hydrophilic units. In certain embodiments, the hydrophilic units are the same type of polymer. In some embodiments, the hydrophilic units include a synthetic polymer having pendant hydroxyl groups on the backbone of the polymer (e.g., PVA). In certain embodiments, the polymer includes a polypropylene glycol unit flanked by two more hydrophilic units. In certain embodiments, the polymer includes two polyethylene glycol units flanking a more hydrophobic unit. In certain embodiments, the polymer is a triblock copolymer with a polypropylene glycol unit flanked by two polyethylene glycol units. The molecular weights of the two blocks flanking the central block may be substantially the same or different.

In certain embodiments, the polymer is of the formula:

wherein each instance of p is independently an integer between 2 and 1140, inclusive; and q is an integer between 2 and 1730, inclusive. In certain embodiments, each instance of p is independently an integer between 10 and 170, inclusive. In certain embodiments, q is an integer between 5 and 70 inclusive. In certain embodiments, each instance of p is independently at least 2 times of q, 3 times of q, or 4 times of q.

In certain embodiments, the surface-altering agent comprises a (poly(ethylene glycol))-(poly(propylene oxide))-(poly(ethylene glycol)) triblock copolymer (PEG-PPO-PEG triblock copolymer), present in the coating alone or in combination with another polymer such as a synthetic polymer having pendant hydroxyl groups on the backbone of the polymer (e.g., PVA). The molecular weights of the PEG and PPO segments of the PEG-PPO-PEG triblock copolymer may be selected so as to reduce the mucoadhesion of the particles, as described herein. Without wishing to be bound by any theory, the particles of the invention having a coating comprising a PEG-PPO-PEG triblock copolymer may have reduced mucoadhesion as compared to control particles due to, at least in part, the PEG segments on the surface of the particles of the invention. The PPO segment may be adhered to the surface of the core (e.g., in the case of the surface of the core being hydrophobic), thus allowing for a strong association between the core and the triblock copolymer. In some embodiments, the PEG-PPO-PEG triblock copolymer is associated with the core through non-covalent interactions. For purposes of comparison, the control particle may be, for example, a carboxylate-modified polystyrene particle of similar size as the particle of the invention.

In certain embodiments, the surface-altering agent includes a polymer comprising a poloxamer, having the trade name PLURONIC®. PLURONIC® polymers that may be useful in the embodiments described herein include, but are not limited to, F127, F38, F108, F68, F77, F87, F88, F98, L101, L121, L31, L35, L43, L44, L61, L62, L64, L81, L92, N3, P103, P104, P105, P123, P65, P84, and P85. Examples of molecular weights of certain PLURONIC® polymers are shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Molecular weight (MW) of PLURONIC ® polymers MW of the MW of the Average MW PPO portion PEG portion PLURONIC ® (Da) (Da) PEG wt % (Da) F127 12000  3600 70 8400 L44 2000 1200 40  800 L81 2667 2400 10  267 L101 3333 3000 10  333 P65 3600 1800 50 1800 L121 4000 3600 10  400 P103 4286 3000 30 1286 F38 4500  900 80 3600 P123 5143 3600 30 1543 P105 6000 3000 50 3000 F87 8000 2400 70 5600 F68 9000 1800 80 7200 P123 5750 4030 30 1730

Although other ranges may be possible, in some embodiments, the hydrophobic block of the PEG-PPO-PEG triblock copolymer has one of the molecular weights described above (e.g., at least about 3 kDa and less than about 15 kDa), and the combined hydrophilic blocks have a weight percentage with respect to the polymer in one of the ranges described above (e.g., at least about 15 wt %, at least about 20 wt %, at least about 25 wt %, or at least about 30 wt %, and less than about 80 wt %). Certain PLURONIC® polymers that fall within these criteria include, for example, F127 (poloxamer 407), F108 (poloxamer 338), P105, and P103. In certain embodiments, the particles of the invention including PLURONIC® polymers that fall within these criteria are more mucus penetrating than particles including PLURONIC® polymers that did not fall within these criteria. Materials that do not render the particles mucus penetrating also include certain polymers such as polyvinylpyrrolidones (PVP/KOLLIDON), polyvinyl alcohol-polyethylene glycol graft-copolymer (KOLLICOAT IR), and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (METHOCEL); oligomers such as TWEEN 20, TWEEN 80, solutol HS 15, TRITON X100, tyloxapol, and CREMOPHOR RH 40; and small molecules such as SPAN 20, SPAN 80, octyl glucoside, cetytrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS).

Although much of the description herein may involve coatings comprising a (hydrophilic block)-(hydrophobic block)-(hydrophilic block) configuration (e.g., a PEG-PPO-PEG triblock copolymer) or coatings comprising a synthetic polymer having pendant hydroxyl groups, it should be appreciated that the coatings are not limited to these configurations and materials and that other configurations and materials are possible.

Furthermore, although many of the embodiments described herein involve a single coating, in other embodiments, a particle may include more than one coating (e.g., at least two, three, four, five, or more coatings), and each coating need not be formed of or comprise a mucus penetrating material. In some embodiments, an intermediate coating (i.e., a coating between the core surface and an outer coating) may include a polymer that facilitates attachment of an outer coating to the core surface. In some embodiments, an outer coating of a particle includes a polymer comprising a material that facilitates the transport of the particle through mucus.

The coating (e.g., an inner coating, intermediate coating, and/or outer coating) of the particles of the invention may include any suitable polymer. In some embodiments, the polymer of the coating is biocompatible and/or biodegradable. In some embodiments, the polymer of the coating comprises more than one type of polymer (e.g., at least two, three, four, five, or more types of polymers). In some embodiments, the polymer of the coating is a random copolymer or a block copolymer (e.g., a diblock or triblock copolymer) as described herein.

Non-limiting examples of suitable polymers of the coating may include polyamines, polyethers, polyamides, polyesters, polycarbamates, polyureas, polycarbonates, polystyrenes, polyimides, polysulfones, polyurethanes, polyacetylenes, polyethylenes, polyethyeneimines, polyisocyanates, polyacrylates, polymethacrylates, polyacrylonitriles, and polyarylates. Non-limiting examples of specific polymers include poly(caprolactone) (PCL), ethylene vinyl acetate polymer (EVA), poly(lactic acid) (PLA), poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA), poly(glycolic acid) (PGA), poly(lactic acid-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), poly(L-lactic acid-co-glycolic acid) (PLLGA), poly(D,L-lactide) (PDLA), poly(L-lactide) (PLLA), poly(D,L-lactide-co-caprolactone), poly(D,L-lactide-co-caprolactone-co-glycolide), poly(D, L-lactide-co-PEO-co-D, L-lactide), poly(D, L-lactide-co-PPO-co-D,L-lactide), polyalkyl cyanoacrylate, polyurethane, poly-L-lysine (PLL), hydroxypropyl methacrylate (HPMA), poly(ethylene glycol), poly-L-glutamic acid, poly(hydroxy acids), polyanhydrides, polyorthoesters, poly(ester amides), polyamides, poly(ester ethers), polycarbonates, polyalkylenes such as polyethylene and polypropylene, polyalkylene glycols such as poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), polyalkylene terephthalates such as poly(ethylene terephthalate), polyvinyl alcohols (PVA), polyvinyl ethers, polyvinyl esters such as poly(vinyl acetate), polyvinyl halides such as poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), polyvinylpyrrolidone, polysiloxanes, polystyrene (PS), polyurethanes, derivatized celluloses such as alkyl celluloses, hydroxyalkyl celluloses, cellulose ethers, cellulose esters, nitro celluloses, hydroxypropylcellulose, carboxymethylcellulose, polymers of acrylic acids, such as poly(methyl(meth)acrylate) (PMMA), poly(ethyl(meth)acrylate), poly(butyl(meth)acrylate), poly(isobutyl(meth)acrylate), poly(hexyl(meth)acrylate), poly(isodecyl(meth)acrylate), poly(lauryl(meth)acrylate), poly(phenyl(meth)acrylate), poly(methyl acrylate), poly(isopropyl acrylate), poly(isobutyl acrylate), poly(octadecyl acrylate) (jointly referred to herein as “polyacrylic acids”), and copolymers and mixtures thereof, polydioxanone and its copolymers, polyhydroxyalkanoates, polypropylene fumarate), polyoxymethylene, poloxamers, poly(ortho)esters, poly(butyric acid), poly(valeric acid), poly(lactide-co-caprolactone), and trimethylene carbonate.

The molecular weight of the polymer of the coating may vary. In some embodiments, the molecular weight of the polymer of the coating is at least about 0.5 kDa, at least about 1 kDa, at least about 1.8 kDa, at least about 2 kDa, at least about 3 kDa, at least about 4 kDa, at least about 5 kDa, at least about 6 kDa, at least about 8 kDa, at least about 10 kDa, at least about 12 kDa, at least about 15 kDa, at least about 20 kDa, at least about 30 kDa, at least about 40 kDa, or at least about 50 kDa. In some embodiments, the molecular weight of the polymer of the coating is less than about 50 kDa, less than about 40 kDa, less than about 30 kDa, less than about 20 kDa, less than about 12 kDa, less than about 10 kDa, less than about 8 kDa, less than about 6 kDa, less than about 5 kDa, or less than about 4 kDa. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are possible (e.g., a molecular weight of at least about 2 kDa and less than about 15 kDa). Other ranges are also possible. The molecular weight of the polymer of the coating may be determined using any known technique such as light-scattering and gel permeation chromatography. Other methods are known in the art.

In certain embodiments, the molecular weight of the hydrophobic block of the triblock copolymer of the (hydrophilic block)-(hydrophobic block)-(hydrophilic block) configuration is at least about 2 kDa, and the two hydrophilic blocks constitute at least about 15 wt % of the triblock copolymer.

In certain embodiments, the polymer of the coating is biocompatible. In certain embodiments, the polymer of the coating is biodegradable. All biocompatible polymers and biodegrade polymers are contemplated to be within the scope of the invention. In certain embodiments, a polymer degrades in vivo within a period that is acceptable for the desired application. For example, in an in vivo therapy, the polymer degrades in a period less than about five years, about one year, about six months, about three months, about one month, about two weeks, about one week, about three days, about one day, about six hours, or about one hour upon exposure to a physiological environment with a pH between about 6 and about 8 having a temperature of between about 25 and about 37° C. In some embodiments, the polymer of the coating degrades in a period of between about one hour and several weeks, depending on the desired application.

Although the particles of the invention, and the coating thereof, may each include polymers, in some embodiments, the particles of the invention comprise a hydrophobic material that is not a polymer or pharmaceutical agent. Non-limiting examples of non-polymeric hydrophobic materials include, for example, metals, waxes, and organic materials (e.g., organic silanes and perfluorinated or fluorinated organic materials).

Particles with Reduced Mucoadhesion

Coated particles of the invention may have reduced mucoadhesiveness. A material in need of increased diffusivity through mucus may be hydrophobic, may include many hydrogen bond donors or acceptors, and/or may be highly charged. In some cases, the material may include a crystalline or amorphous solid material. The material, which may serve as a core, may be coated with a suitable polymer described herein, thereby forming a particle with a plurality of surface-altering moieties on the surface, resulting in reduced mucoadhesion. Particles of the invention as having reduced mucoadhesion may alternatively be characterized as having increased transport through mucus, being mobile in mucus, or mucus-penetrating (i.e., mucus-penetrating particles), meaning that the particles are transported through mucus faster than a negative control particle. The negative control particle may be a particle that is known to be mucoadhesive, e.g., an unmodified particle or core that is not coated with a coating described herein, such as a 200 nm carboxylated polystyrene particle.

Coated particles of the invention may be adapted for delivery (e.g., ocular delivery) to mucus or a mucosal surface of a subject. The particles with surface-altering moieties may be delivered to the mucosal surface of a subject, may pass through the mucosal barrier in the subject, and/or prolonged retention and/or increased uniform distribution of the particles at mucosal surfaces, e.g., due to reduced mucoadhesion.

Furthermore, in some embodiments, the coated particles of the invention having reduced mucoadhesion facilitate better distribution of the particles at the surface of a tissue of a subject and/or have a prolonged presence at the surface of the tissue, compared to particles that are more mucoadhesive. For example, a luminal space such as the gastrointestinal tract is surrounded by a mucus-coated surface. Mucoadhesive particles delivered to such a space are typically removed from the luminal space and from the mucus-coated surface by the subject's natural clearance mechanisms. The particles of the invention with reduced mucoadhesion may remain in the luminal space for relatively longer periods compared to the mucoadhesive particles. This prolonged presence may prevent or reduce clearance of the particles and/or may allow for better distribution of the particles on the surface of the tissue. The prolonged presence may also affect the particle transport through the luminal space, e.g., the particles may distribute into the mucus layer and may reach the underlying epithelium.

In certain embodiments, the core of the particles of the invention coated with the polymer of the coating may pass through mucus or a mucosal barrier in a subject, exhibit prolonged retention, and/or increase uniform distribution of the particles at mucosal surfaces, e.g., such substances are cleared more slowly (e.g., at least about 2 times, about 5 times, about 10 times, or even at least about 20 times more slowly) from a subject's body as compared to a negative control particle of the invention.

The mobility of the particles of the invention in mucus may be characterized in, e.g., the relative velocity and/or diffusivity of the particles. In certain embodiments, the particles of the invention have certain relative velocity, <V_(mean)>_(rel), which is defined as follows:

$\begin{matrix} {\left\langle V_{mean} \right\rangle_{rel} = \frac{\left\langle V_{mean} \right\rangle_{Sample} - \left\langle V_{mean} \right\rangle_{{Negative}\mspace{14mu}{control}}}{\left\langle V_{mean} \right\rangle_{{Positive}\mspace{14mu}{control}} - \left\langle V_{mean} \right\rangle_{{Negative}\mspace{14mu}{control}}}} & \left( {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 1} \right) \end{matrix}$ wherein:

<V_(mean)> is the ensemble average trajectory-mean velocity;

V_(mean) is the velocity of an individual particle averaged over its trajectory;

the sample is the particle of interest;

the negative control is a 200 nm carboxylated polystyrene particle; and

the positive control is a 200 nm polystyrene particle densely PEGylated with 2-5 kDa PEG.

The relative velocity can be measured by a multiple particle tracking technique. For instance, a fluorescent microscope equipped with a CCD camera can be used to capture 15 s movies at a temporal resolution of 66.7 ms (15 frames/s) under 100× magnification from several areas within each sample for each type of particles: sample, negative control, and positive control. The sample, negative control, and positive control may be fluorescent particles to observe tracking. Alternatively non-fluorescent particles may be coated with a fluorescent molecule, a fluorescently tagged surface agent, or a fluorescently tagged polymer. An advanced image processing software (e.g., IMAGE PRO or METAMORPH) can be used to measure individual trajectories of multiple particles over a time-scale of at least 3.335 s (50 frames).

In some embodiments, the particles of the invention have a relative velocity of greater than or equal to about 0.3, greater than or equal to about 0.5, greater than or equal to about 0.7, greater than or equal to about 1.0, greater than or equal to about 1.5, or greater than or equal to about 2.0 in mucus. In some embodiments, particles of the invention have a relative velocity of less than about 10.0, less than about 6.0, less than about 2.0, less than about 1.5, less than about 1.0, or less than about 0.7 in mucus. Combinations of the above-noted ranges are possible (e.g., a relative velocity of greater than or equal to about 0.5 and less than about 6.0). Other ranges are also possible.

In certain embodiments, the particles of the invention diffuse through mucus or a mucosal barrier at a greater rate or diffusivity than negative control particles or corresponding particles (e.g., particles that are unmodified and/or not coated with a coating described herein). In some embodiments, the particles of the invention pass through mucus or a mucosal barrier at a rate of diffusivity that is at least about 10 times, about 30 times, about 100 times, about 300 times, about 1000 times, about 3000 times, about 10000 times higher than a control particle or a corresponding particle. In some embodiments, the particles of the invention pass through mucus or a mucosal barrier at a rate of diffusivity that is less than about 10000 times higher, less than about 3000 times higher, less than about 1000 times higher, less than about 300 times higher, less than about 100 times higher, less than about 30 times higher, or less than about 10 times higher than negative control particles or corresponding particles. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., at least about 10 times and less than about 1000 times higher than negative control particles or corresponding particles). Other ranges are also possible.

For the purposes of the comparisons described herein, the corresponding particles may be approximately the same size, shape, and/or density as the particles of the invention but lack the coating that makes the particles of the invention mobile in mucus. In some embodiments, the measurement of the geometric mean square displacement and rate of diffusivity of the particles (e.g., the corresponding particles and particles of the invention) is based on a time scale of about 1 second, about 3 seconds, or about 10 seconds. Methods for determining the geometric mean square displacement and rate of diffusivity are known in the art. The particles of the invention may pass through mucus or a mucosal barrier with a geometric mean squared displacement that is at least about 10 times, about 30 times, about 100 times, about 300 times, about 1000 times, about 3000 times, about 10000 times higher than corresponding particles or negative control particles. In some embodiments, the particles of the invention pass through mucus or a mucosal barrier with a geometric mean squared displacement that is less than about 10000 times higher, less than about 3000 times higher, less than about 1000 times higher, less than about 300 times higher, less than about 100 times higher, less than about 30 times higher, or less than about 10 times higher than negative control particles or corresponding particles. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., at least about 10 times and less than about 1000 times higher than negative control particles or corresponding particles). Other ranges are also possible.

In some embodiments, coated particles of the invention diffuse through a mucosal barrier at a rate approaching the rate or diffusivity at which the particles can diffuse through water. In some embodiments, the particles of the invention pass through a mucosal barrier at a rate or diffusivity that is less than about 1/100, less than about 1/300, less than about 1/1000, less than about 1/3000, less than about 1/10,000 of the diffusivity that the particles diffuse through water under similar conditions. In some embodiments, particles of the invention pass through a mucosal barrier at a rate or diffusivity that is greater than or equal to about 1/10,000, greater than or equal to about 1/3000, greater than or equal to about 1/1000, greater than or equal to about 1/300, or greater than or equal to about 1/100 of the diffusivity that the particles diffuse through water under similar conditions. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to about 1/3000 and less than 1/300 the diffusivity that the particles diffuse through water under similar conditions). Other ranges are also possible. The measurement of diffusivity may be based on a time scale of about 1 second, or about 0.5 second, or about 2 seconds, or about 5 seconds, or about 10 seconds.

In some embodiments, the coated particles of the invention diffuse through human cervicovaginal mucus at a diffusivity that is less than about 1/500 of the diffusivity that the particles diffuse through water. In some embodiments, the measurement of diffusivity is based on a time scale of about 1 second, or about 0.5 second, or about 2 seconds, or about 5 seconds, or about 10 seconds.

In certain embodiments, the coated particles of the invention travel through mucus, such as human cervicovaginal mucus, at certain absolute diffusivities. For example, the particles of the invention may travel at diffusivities of at least about 1×10⁻⁴ μm/s, about 3×10⁻⁴ μm/s, about 1×10⁻³ μm/s, about 3×10⁻³ μm/s, about 1×10⁻² μm/s, about 3×10⁻² μm/s, about 1×10⁻¹ μm/s, about 3×10⁻¹ μm/s, about 1 μm/s, or about 3 μm/s. In some embodiments, the particles may travel at diffusivities of less than about 3 μm/s, less than about 1 μm/s, less than about 3×10⁻¹ μm/s, less than about 1×10⁻¹ μm/s, less than about 3×10⁻² μm/s, less than about 1×10⁻² μm/s, less than about 3×10⁻³ μm/s, less than about 1×10⁻³ μm/s, less than about 3×10⁻⁴ μm/s, or less than about 1×10⁻⁴ μm/s. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to about 3×10⁻⁴ μm/s and less than about 1×10⁻¹ μm/s). Other ranges are also possible. In some cases, the measurement of diffusivity is based on a time scale of about 1 second, or about 0.5 second, or about 2 seconds, or about 5 seconds, or about 10 seconds.

It should be appreciated that while the mobility (e.g., relative velocity and diffusivity) of the coated particles of the invention may be measured in human cervicovaginal mucus, the mobility may be measured in other types of mucus as well.

In certain embodiments, the particles of the invention comprise surface-altering moieties at a given density. The surface-altering moieties may be the portions of a surface-altering agent that are, for example, exposed to the solvent containing the particles. In one example, the hydrolyzed units/blocks of PVA may be surface-altering moieties of the surface-altering agent PVA. In another example, the PEG segments may be surface-altering moieties of the surface-altering agent PEG-PPO-PEG. In some embodiments, the surface-altering moieties and/or surface-altering agents are present at a density of at least about 0.001 units or molecules per nm², at least about 0.003, at least about 0.01, at least about 0.03, at least about 0.1, at least about 0.3, at least about 1, at least about 3, at least about 10, at least about 30, at least about 100 units or molecules per nm², or more units or molecules per nm². In some cases, the surface-altering moieties and/or surface-altering agents are present at a density of less than about 100 units or molecules per nm², less than about 30, less than about 10, less than about 3, less than about 1, less than about 0.3, less than about 0.1, less than about 0.03, or less than about 0.01 units or molecules per nm². Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are possible (e.g., a density of at least about 0.01 and less than about 1 units or molecules per nm²). Other ranges are also possible. In some embodiments, the density values described herein are an average density as the surface altering agent is in equilibrium with other components in solution.

Those skilled in the art would be aware of methods to estimate the average density of surface-altering moieties (see, for example, Budijono et al., Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 2010, 360, 105-110; Joshi et al., Anal. Chim. Acta 1979, 104, 153-160). For example, as described herein, the average density of surface-altering moieties can be determined using HPLC quantitation and DLS analysis. A suspension of particles for which surface density determination is of interest is first sized using DLS: a small volume is diluted to an appropriate concentration (e.g., about 100 μg/mL), and the z-average diameter is taken as a representative measurement of particle size. The remaining suspension is then divided into two aliquots. Using HPLC, the first aliquot is assayed for the total concentration of core material and for the total concentration of the surface-altering moiety. Again using HPLC, the second aliquot is assayed for the concentration of free or unbound surface-altering moiety. In order to get only the free or unbound surface-altering moiety from the second aliquot, the particles, and therefore any bound surface-altering moiety, are removed by ultracentrifugation. By subtracting the concentration of the unbound surface-altering moiety from the total concentration of surface-altering moiety, the concentration of bound surface-altering moiety can be determined. Since the total concentration of core material was also determined from the first aliquot, the mass ratio between the core material and the surface-altering moiety can be determined. Using the molecular weight of the surface-altering moiety the number of surface-altering moiety to mass of core material can be calculated. To turn this number into a surface density measurement, the surface area per mass of core material needs to be calculated. The volume of the particle is approximated as that of a sphere with the diameter obtained from DLS allowing for the calculation of the surface area per mass of core material. In this way the number of surface-altering moieties per surface area can be determined.

In certain embodiments, the coated particles of the invention comprise surface-altering moieties and/or agents that affect the zeta-potential of the particle. The zeta potential of the particle may be, for example, at least about −100 mV, at least about −30 mV, at least about −10 mV, at least about −3 mV, at least about 3 mV, at least about 10 mV, at least about 30 mV, or at least about 100 mV. The zeta potential of the particle may also be, for example, less than about 100 mV, less than about 30 mV, less than about 10 mV, less than about 3 mV, less than about −3 mV, less than about −10 mV, less than about −30 mV, or less than about −100 mV. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are possible (e.g., a zeta-potential of at least about −30 mV and less than about 30 mV). Other ranges are also possible.

The coated particles of the invention may have any suitable shape and/or size. In some embodiments, the particle has a shape substantially similar to the shape of the core. In some embodiments, the particle is a nanoparticle. In some embodiments, the particle is a microparticle. A plurality of particles, in some embodiments, may also be characterized by an average size (e.g., an average largest cross-sectional dimension or average smallest cross-sectional dimension for a plurality of particles). A plurality of particles may have an average size of, for example, less than about 10 μm, less than about 3 μm, less than about 1 μm, less than about 500 nm, less than 400 nm, less than 300 nm, less than about 200 nm, less than about 100 nm, less than about 50 nm, less than about 30 nm, or less than about 10 nm. In some cases, a plurality of particles may have an average size of, for example, at least about 10 nm, at least about 30 nm, at least about 50 nm, at least about 100 nm, at least about 200 nm, at least about 300 nm, at least about 400 nm, at least about 500 nm, at least about 1 μm, at least or at least about 3 μm. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., an average size of at least about 30 nm and less than about 500 nm). Other ranges are also possible. In some embodiments, the sizes of the cores of the particles of the invention have a Gaussian-type distribution. In some embodiments, the sizes of the particles of the invention have a Gaussian-type distribution.

Pharmaceutical Agents

A particle or pharmaceutical composition of the invention may comprise at least one pharmaceutical agent of Formula (I) or Formula (VI). In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent described herein is a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug of another pharmaceutical agent. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is a co-crystal with another substance (e.g., a solvent, protein, or another pharmaceutical agent). The pharmaceutical agent may be present in the core and/or one or more coatings of the particle (e.g., dispersed throughout the core and/or coating). In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent may be disposed on the surface of the particle (e.g., on the outer or inner surface of the one or more coatings or on the surface of the core). The pharmaceutical agent may be contained within the particle and/or disposed in a portion of the particle using commonly known techniques (e.g., coating, adsorption, covalent linkage, and encapsulation). In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is present during the formation of the core. In other embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is not present during the formation of the core. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is present during the coating of the core. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is the core of the particle.

In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent contained in a particle or pharmaceutical composition of the invention has a therapeutic and/or prophylactic effect in a mucosal tissue to be targeted. Non-limiting examples of mucosal tissues include ophthalmic, respiratory (e.g., including nasal, pharyngeal, tracheal, and bronchial membranes), oral (e.g., including the buccal and esophagal membranes and tonsil surface), gastrointestinal (e.g., including stomach, small intestine, large intestine, colon, rectum), nasal, and genital (e.g., including vaginal, cervical and urethral membranes) tissues.

Any suitable number of pharmaceutical agents may be present in a particle or pharmaceutical composition of the invention. For example, at least 1, at least 2, at least 3, at least 4, at least 5, or more pharmaceutical agents may be present in the particle or pharmaceutical composition of the invention. In certain embodiments, less than 10 pharmaceutical agents are present in the particle or pharmaceutical composition of the invention.

In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent in the particles or pharmaceutical compositions of the invention is a compound of Formula (I) or a compound of Formula (VI) of the invention. The pharmaceutical agent described herein (e.g., a compound of the invention) may be encapsulated in a polymer, a lipid, a protein, or a combination thereof.

Pharmaceutical Compositions

In another aspect, the present invention provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising the plurality of particles of a compound of Formula (I) or a compound of Formula (VI) of the invention.

In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions are useful for the delivery of a pharmaceutical agent described herein (e.g., a compound of the invention) through or to mucus or a mucosal surface in a subject. The pharmaceutical compositions may be delivered to the mucosal surface in the subject and may pass through a mucosal barrier in the subject (e.g., mucus), and/or may show prolonged retention and/or increased uniform distribution of the particles of the invention at the mucosal surface, e.g., due to reduced mucoadhesion. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions are useful in increasing the bioavailability of the pharmaceutical agent in the subject. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions are useful in increasing the concentration of the pharmaceutical agent in the subject. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions are useful in increasing the exposure of the pharmaceutical agent in the subject. Moreover, the pharmaceutical compositions may be useful in treating and/or preventing a disease (e.g., ocular disease) in a subject.

Moreover, the pharmaceutical compositions may be administered parenterally as injections (intravenous, intramuscular, or subcutaneous), drop infusion preparations, or suppositories. For ophthalmic applications, the pharmaceutical compositions may be administered by injection (e.g., intraocular, intrastromal, intravitreal, or intracameral), or by the ophthalmic mucous membrane route, the pharmaceutical compositions may be administered topically, such as suspensions (e.g., eye drops) or ointments.

The pharmaceutical composition of the invention may include one or more pharmaceutical agents described herein, such as a compound of the invention. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes a plurality of particles of the invention that comprise one or more pharmaceutical agents in the core and/or coating of the particles. In some embodiments, the ratio of the weight of each one of the pharmaceutical agents to the weight of each one of the one or more surface-altering agents (e.g., PLURONIC® F127) present in the pharmaceutical composition is greater than or equal to about 1:100, greater than or equal to about 1:30, greater than or equal to about 1:10, greater than or equal to about 1:3, greater than or equal to about 1:1, greater than or equal to about 3:1, greater than or equal to about 10:1, greater than or equal to about 30:1, or greater than or equal to about 100:1. In some embodiments, the ratio of the weight of each one of the pharmaceutical agents to the weight of each one of the one or more surface-altering agents in a pharmaceutical composition is less than about 100:1, less than about 30:1, less than about 10:1, less than about 3:1, less than about 1:1, less than about 1:3: less than about 1:10, less than about 1:30, or less than about 1:100. Combinations of the above-noted ranges are possible (e.g., a ratio of greater than or equal to about 1:1 and less than about 10:1). Other ranges are also possible. In certain embodiments, the ratio is about 1:1, about 2:1, or about 10:1. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition of the invention includes the above-noted ranges for the ratio of the weight of each one of the pharmaceutical agents to the weight of each one of the one or more surface-altering agents during a formation process and/or a dilution process described herein. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes the above-noted ranges for the ratio of the weight of each one of the pharmaceutical agents to the weight of each one of the one or more surface-altering agents immediately prior to the pharmaceutical composition being administered to a subject or contacted with a biological sample. The pharmaceutical agent may be present in the pharmaceutical composition of the invention in any suitable amount, e.g., at least about 0.01 wt %, at least about 0.1 wt %, at least about 1 wt %, at least about 5 wt %, at least about 10 wt %, at least about 30 wt % of the pharmaceutical composition. In some cases, the pharmaceutical agent may be present in the pharmaceutical composition at less than about 30 wt %, less than about 10 wt %, less than about 5 wt %, less than about 2 wt %, or less than about 1 wt % of the pharmaceutical composition. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., present in an amount of at least about 0.1 wt % and less than about 10 wt % of the pharmaceutical composition). Other ranges are also possible. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is about 0.1-2 wt % of the pharmaceutical composition. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is about 2-20 wt % of the pharmaceutical composition. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is about 0.2 wt %, about 0.4 wt %, about 1 wt %, about 2 wt %, about 5 wt %, or about 10 wt % of the pharmaceutical composition.

In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes a plurality of particles of the invention that comprise the chelating agent in the core and/or coating of the particles.

In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes a plurality of particles of the invention that comprise a tonicity agent in the core and/or coating of the particles.

It is appreciated in the art that the ionic strength of an inventive pharmaceutical composition that comprises a plurality of particles of the invention may affect the polydispersity of the plurality of the particles. The ionic strength may also affect the colloidal stability of the plurality of the particles. For example, a relatively high ionic strength of the pharmaceutical composition may cause the plurality of particles to coagulate and therefore may destabilize the pharmaceutical composition. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is stabilized by repulsive inter-particle forces. For example, the plurality of particles may be electrically or electrostatically charged. Two charged particles may repel each other, preventing collision and aggregation. When the repulsive inter-particle forces weaken or become attractive, the plurality of particles may start to aggregate. For instance, when the ionic strength of the pharmaceutical composition is increased to a certain level, the charges (e.g., negative charges) of the plurality of particles may be neutralized by the oppositely charged ions present in the pharmaceutical composition (e.g., Na⁺ ions in solution). As a result, the plurality of particles may collide and bond to each other to form aggregates (e.g., clusters or flocs) of larger sizes. The formed aggregates of particles may also differ in size, and thus the polydispersity of the pharmaceutical composition may also increase. For example, an inventive pharmaceutical composition comprising similarly-sized particles may become a pharmaceutical composition comprising particles having various sizes (e.g., due to aggregation) when the ionic strength of the pharmaceutical composition is increased beyond a certain level. In the course of aggregation, the aggregates may grow in size and eventually settle to the bottom of the container, and the pharmaceutical composition is considered colloidally unstable. Once the plurality of particles in a pharmaceutical composition form aggregates, it is usually difficult to disrupt the aggregates into individual particles.

Certain pharmaceutical compositions of the invention show unexpected properties in that, among other things, the presence of one or more ionic tonicity agents (e.g., a salt, such as NaCl) in the pharmaceutical compositions at certain concentrations actually decreases or maintains the degree of aggregation of the particles present in the pharmaceutical compositions, and/or does not significantly increase aggregation. In certain embodiments, the polydispersity of the pharmaceutical composition decreases, is relatively constant, or does not change by an appreciable amount upon addition of one or more ionic tonicity agents into the pharmaceutical composition. For example, in some embodiments, the polydispersity of a pharmaceutical composition is relatively constant in the presence of added ionic strength and/or when the added ionic strength of the pharmaceutical composition is kept relatively constant or increased (e.g., during a formation and/or dilution process described herein). In certain embodiments, when the ionic strength increases by at least 50%, the polydispersity increases by less than about 300%, less than about 100%, less than about 30%, less than about 10%, less than about 3%, or less than about 1%. In certain embodiments, when the ionic strength is increased by at least 50%, the polydispersity increases by greater than or equal to about 1%, greater than or equal to about 3%, greater than or equal to about 10%, greater than or equal to about 30%, or greater than or equal to about 100%. Combinations of the above-noted ranges are possible (e.g., an increase in polydispersity of less than 30% and greater than or equal to 3%). Other ranges are also possible.

The ionic strength of a pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be controlled (e.g., increased, decreased, or maintained) through a variety of means, such as the addition of one or more ionic tonicity agents (e.g., a salt, such as NaCl) to the pharmaceutical composition. In certain embodiments, the ionic strength of a pharmaceutical composition of the invention is greater than or equal to about 0.0003 M, greater than or equal to about 0.001 M, greater than or equal to about 0.003 M, greater than or equal to about 0.01 M, greater than or equal to about 0.03 M, greater than or equal to about 0.1 M, greater than or equal to about 0.3 M, greater than or equal to about 1 M, greater than or equal to about 3 M, or greater than or equal to about 10 M. In certain embodiments, the ionic strength of a pharmaceutical composition of the invention is less than about 10 M, less than about 3 M, less than about 1 M, less than about 0.3 M, less than about 0.1 M, less than about 0.03 M, less than about 0.01 M, less than about 0.003 M, less than about 0.001 M, or less than about 0.0003 M. Combinations of the above-noted ranges are possible (e.g., an ionic strength of greater than or equal to about 0.01 M and less than about 1 M). Other ranges are also possible. In certain embodiments, the ionic strength of a pharmaceutical composition of the invention is about 0.1 M, about 0.15 M, or about 0.3 M.

In certain embodiments, the polydispersity of a pharmaceutical composition does not change upon addition of one or more ionic tonicity agents into the pharmaceutical composition. In certain embodiments, the polydispersity does not significantly increase upon addition of one or more ionic tonicity agents into the pharmaceutical composition. In certain embodiments, the polydispersity increases to a level described herein upon addition of one or more ionic tonicity agents into the pharmaceutical composition.

The polydispersity of an inventive pharmaceutical composition that comprises a plurality of particles of the invention may be measured by the polydispersity index (PDI). In certain embodiments, the PDI of the pharmaceutical composition is less than about 1, less than about 0.8, less than about 0.6, less than about 0.4, less than about 0.3, less than about 0.2, less than about 0.15, less than about 0.1, less than about 0.05, less than about 0.01, or less than about 0.005. In certain embodiments, the PDI of the pharmaceutical composition is greater than or equal to about 0.005, greater than or equal to about 0.01, greater than or equal to about 0.05, greater than or equal to about 0.1, greater than or equal to about 0.15, greater than or equal to about 0.2, greater than or equal to about 0.3, greater than or equal to about 0.4, greater than or equal to about 0.6, greater than or equal to about 0.8, or greater than or equal to about 1. Combinations of the above-noted ranges are possible (e.g., a PDI of greater than or equal to about 0.1 and less than about 0.5). Other ranges are also possible. In certain embodiments, the PDI of the pharmaceutical composition is about 0.1, about 0.15, or about 0.2. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is highly dispersible and does not tend to form aggregates. Even when the particles do form aggregates, the aggregates may be easily broken up into individual particles without rigorously agitating the pharmaceutical composition.

Methods of Preparing Particles and Pharmaceutical Compositions Thereof

In one aspect, the present invention provides methods of preparing the particles of the invention. Methods of preparing similar particles have been described in U.S. patent application U.S. Ser. No. 13/886,493, filed May 3, 2013, and U.S. Ser. No. 13/886,602, filed May 3, 2013, and U.S. Ser. No. 13/886,658, filed May 3, 2013, each of which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

The core of the particle may be formed by any suitable method. Suitable methods may include, for example, top-down techniques, i.e. techniques based on size reduction of relatively large particles into smaller particles (e.g., milling or homogenization) or bottom-up techniques, i.e. techniques based on the growth of particles from smaller particles or individual molecules (e.g., precipitation or spray-freezing into liquid).

In some embodiments, the core of the particle may be coated with a coating. For example, the core may be provided or formed in a first step, and then the core may be coated in a second step. In some embodiments, the core particle is formed and coated substantially simultaneously (e.g., in a single step).

In some embodiments, the particle is formed by a method that involves using a formulation process, a milling process, and/or a dilution process. In certain embodiments, a method of forming the particle includes a milling process, optionally with a formulation process and/or a dilution process. A formulation process may be used to form a suspension comprising a core material, one or more surface-altering agents, and other components, such as solvents, tonicity agents, chelating agents, salts, and/or buffers (e.g., a sodium citrate and citric acid buffer), each of which is as described herein. The formulation process may be performed using a formulation vessel. The core material and other components may be added into the formulation vessel at the same time or different times. A mixture of the core material and/or one or more other components may be stirred and/or shaken, or otherwise agitated in the vessel to facilitate suspending the components to form the suspension. The temperature and/or pressure of the core material, other components, and/or mixture may also be individually increased or decreased to facilitate the suspending process. In some embodiments, the core material and other components are processed as described herein in the formulation vessel under an inert atmosphere (e.g., nitrogen or argon) and/or protected from light. The suspension obtained from the formulation vessel may be subsequently subject to a milling process which may be followed by a dilution process.

In some embodiments involving a core comprising a solid material (e.g., crystalline compound of the invention) a milling process may be used to reduce the size of the solid material to form particles in a micrometer to nanometer size range. The milling process may be performed using a mill or other suitable apparatus. Dry and wet milling processes such as jet milling, cryo-milling, ball milling, media milling, sonication, and homogenization are known and can be used in methods of the invention. For example, in a wet milling process, a suspension of the solid material to be used to form the core (“core material”) is agitated with or without excipients to reduce the size of the core to be formed. Dry milling is a process wherein the core material is mixed with milling media with or without excipients to reduce the size of the core to be formed. In a cyro-milling process, a suspension of the core material is mixed with milling media with or without excipients under cooled temperatures. In certain embodiments, when surface-altering agents are employed, a suspension comprising coated particles is obtained from the milling process. In certain embodiments, when surface-altering agents are not employed, a suspension comprising uncoated particles is obtained from the milling process.

The suspension of particles (coated or uncoated) of the invention obtained from a milling process may be further processed with a dilution process. A dilution process may be used to achieve a target dosing concentration by diluting a suspension of particles that were formed during a milling process, with or without surface-altering agents and/or other components. In certain embodiments, when a suspension of coated particles that comprise a first surface-altering agent is processed with a dilution process involving a second surface-altering agent, a suspension of coated particles that comprise the second surface-altering agent is obtained from the dilution process. In certain embodiments, when a suspension of coated particles that comprise a surface-altering agent is processed with a dilution process involving no or the same surface-altering agent, a suspension of coated particles that comprise the surface-altering agent is obtained from the dilution process. In certain embodiments, when a suspension of uncoated particles is processed with a dilution process involving a surface-altering agent, a suspension of coated particles comprising the surface-altering agent is obtained from the dilution process. The dilution process may be performed using a product vessel or any other suitable apparatus. In certain embodiments, the suspension of the particles is diluted, i.e., mixed or otherwise processed with a diluent, in the product vessel. The diluent may contain solvents, surface-altering agents, tonicity agents, chelating agents, salts, or a combination thereof, as described herein. The suspension and the diluent may be added into the product vessel at the same time or different times. In certain embodiments when the suspension is obtained from a milling process involving milling media, the milling media may be separated from the suspension before the suspension is added into the product vessel. The suspension, the diluent, or the mixture of the suspension and the diluent may be stirred and/or shaken, or otherwise agitated, to form the particles and/or pharmaceutical compositions of the invention. The temperature and/or pressure of the suspension, the diluent, or the mixture may also be individually increased or decreased to form the coated particles. In some embodiments, the suspension and the diluent are processed in the product vessel under an inert atmosphere (e.g., nitrogen or argon) and/or protected from light.

In some embodiments, the core and/or coated particles may be produced by milling of a solid material (e.g., a pharmaceutical agent) in the presence of one or more surface-altering agents. Small particles of a solid material may require the presence of one or more surface-altering agents, which may function as a stabilizer in some embodiments, in order to stabilize a suspension of particles without agglomeration or aggregation in a liquid solution. In some such embodiments, the stabilizer may act as a surface-altering agent, forming the coated particles of the invention.

As described herein, a method of forming the core and/or the coated particles, may involve choosing a surface-altering agent that is suitable for both milling and forming a coating on the core, wherein the coating renders the particle mucus penetrating.

In a wet milling process, milling may be performed in a dispersion (e.g., an aqueous dispersion) containing at least one surface-altering agent, a grinding medium, a solid to be milled (e.g., a solid pharmaceutical agent), and a solvent. The solvent described herein includes a single solvent or a mixture of different solvents. Any suitable amount of a surface-altering agent can be included in the solvent. In some embodiments, the surface-altering agent may be present in the solvent in an amount of at least about 0.001% (wt % or % weight to volume (w:v)), at least about 0.01%, at least about 0.1%, at least about 1%, at least about 3%, at least about 10%, at least about 30%, or at least about 60% of the solvent. In some cases, the surface-altering agent may be present in the solvent in an amount of about 100% (e.g., in an instance where the surface-altering agent is the solvent). In other embodiments, the surface-altering agent may be present in the solvent in an amount of less than about 100%, less than about 60%, less than about 30%, less than about 10%, less than about 3%, or less than about 1% of the solvent. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., an amount of less than about 3% and at least about 1% of the solvent). Other ranges are also possible. In certain embodiments, the surface-altering agent is present in the solvent in an amount of about 0.01-2%, about 0.2-20%, about 0.1%, about 0.4%, about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, or about 10% of the solvent.

The particular range chosen may influence factors that may affect the ability of the particles to penetrate mucus such as the stability of the coating of the surface-altering agent on the particle surface, the average thickness of the coating of the surface-altering agent on the particles, the orientation of the surface-altering agent on the particles, the density of the surface altering agent on the particles, the ratio of the surface-altering agent to pharmaceutical agent, the concentration of the pharmaceutical agent, the size, dispersibility, and polydispersity of the particles formed, and the morphology of the particles formed.

The pharmaceutical agent may be present in the solvent in any suitable amount. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent is present in an amount of at least about 0.001% (wt % or % weight to volume (w:v)), at least about 0.01%, at least about 0.1%, at least about 1%, at least about 3%, at least about 10%, at least about 30%, or at least about 60% of the solvent. In some cases, the pharmaceutical agent may be present in the solvent in an amount of less than about 100%, less than about 60%, less than about 30%, less than about 10%, less than about 3%, or less than about 1% of the solvent. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., an amount of less than about 30% and at least about 1% of the solvent).

The ratio of surface-altering agent to pharmaceutical agent in a solvent may also vary. In some embodiments, the ratio of the surface-altering agent to pharmaceutical agent is at least about 0.001:1 (weight ratio, molar ratio, or w:v), at least about 0.01:1, at least about 0.01:1, at least about 1:1, at least about 2:1, at least about 3:1, at least about 5:1, at least about 10:1, at least about 30:1, at least about 100:1, or at least about 1000:1. In some embodiments, the ratio of the surface-altering agent to pharmaceutical agent is less than 1000:1 (weight ratio, molar ratio, or w:v), less than about 100:1, less than about 30:1, less than about 10:1, less than about 5:1, less than about 3:1, less than about 2:1, less than about 1:1, or less than about 0.1:1. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are possible (e.g., a ratio of at least about 5:1 and less than about 30:1). Other ranges are also possible.

The surface-altering agents described herein that may act as stabilizers may be, for example, polymers or surfactants. Examples of polymers include those suitable for use in the coating of the particles of the invention, such as poly(vinyl alcohol) and PLURONICS®. Examples of surfactants include L-a-phosphatidylcholine (PC), 1,2-dipalmitoylphosphatidycholine (DPPC), oleic acid, sorbitan trioleate, sorbitan mono-oleate, sorbitan monolaurate, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate, natural lecithin, oleyl polyoxyethylene ether, stearyl polyoxyethylene ether, lauryl polyoxyethylene ether, block copolymers of oxyethylene and oxypropylene, synthetic lecithin, diethylene glycol dioleate, tetrahydrofurfuryl oleate, ethyl oleate, isopropyl myristate, glyceryl monooleate, glyceryl monostearate, glyceryl monoricinoleate, cetyl alcohol, stearyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol, cetyl pyridinium chloride, benzalkonium chloride, olive oil, glyceryl monolaurate, corn oil, cotton seed oil, and sunflower seed oil.

A stabilizer used for milling may form the coating of a particle of the invention, wherein the coating renders the particle mucus penetrating. The stabilizer may also be exchanged with one or more other surface-altering agents after the particle has been formed. For example, a first stabilizer/surface-altering agent may be used during a milling process and may form a first coating of the particle of the invention, and all or part of the first stabilizer/surface-altering agent may then be exchanged with a second stabilizer/surface-altering agent to form a second coating of the particle. In some embodiments, the second stabilizer/surface-altering agent may render the particle mucus penetrating more than the first stabilizer/surface-altering agent. In some embodiments, a particle comprising multiple coatings that include multiple surface-altering agents is formed by a method of the invention.

Any suitable grinding medium can be used for milling. In some embodiments, a ceramic and/or polymeric material and/or a metal can be used. Examples of suitable materials include zirconium oxide, silicon carbide, silicon oxide, silicon nitride, zirconium silicate, yttrium oxide, glass, alumina, alpha-alumina, aluminum oxide, polystyrene, poly(methyl methacrylate), titanium, and steel. A grinding medium may have any suitable size. For example, the grinding medium may have an average diameter of at least about 0.1 mm, at least about 0.2 mm, at least about 0.5 mm, at least about 0.8 mm, at least about 1 mm, at least about 2 mm, or at least about 5 mm. In some cases, the grinding medium may have an average diameter of less than about 5 mm, less than about 2 mm, less than about 1 mm, less than about 0.8, less than about 0.5 mm, or less than about 0.2 mm. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., an average diameter of at least about 0.5 millimeters and less than about 1 mm). Other ranges are also possible.

A solvent may be used for milling. The choice of the solvent suitable for milling may depend on factors like the solid material (e.g., a solid pharmaceutical agent) being milled, the particular type of stabilizer/surface-altering agent (e.g., one that may render the particle mucus penetrating), and the grinding material. The solvent suitable for milling may be one of those solvents that do not substantially dissolve the solid material or the grinding material, but dissolve the stabilizer/surface-altering agent to a suitable degree. Examples of the solvents suitable for milling include water, aqueous solutions, buffered solutions, alcohols (e.g., ethanol, methanol, and butanol), and mixtures thereof, each of which may optionally include other components, such as one or more pharmaceutical excipients, polymers, pharmaceutical agents, salts, preservative agents, viscosity modifiers, tonicity modifiers, taste masking agents, antioxidants, and pH modifiers. In some embodiments, the solvent suitable for milling is an organic solvent.

A pharmaceutical agent described herein (e.g., a compound of the invention) may have a suitable solubility in a solvent suitable for milling, such as a solubility in one or more ranges described herein for aqueous solubility or for solubility in a coating solution. A pharmaceutical agent having a relatively low solubility in a solvent (e.g., water or a coating solution) may be preferred because a milling process described herein typically requires a material (e.g., a pharmaceutical agent) to be in a solid form in order for the material to be milled. In some cases, if the material to be milled has a relatively high soluble in a solvent (e.g., water or a coating solution) used in the milling process, milling may not be conducted because significant or complete dissolution of the material to be milled in the solvent will occur. In certain embodiments, a relatively high solubility of a solid material (e.g., a solid pharmaceutical agent) in a solvent is at least about 1 mg/mL, at least about 3 mg/mL, or at least about 10 mg/mL at 25° C. In certain embodiments, a relatively low solubility of a substance (e.g., a pharmaceutical agent) in a solvent is less than about 1 mg/mL, less than about 0.3 mg/mL, less than about 0.1 mg/mL, less than about 0.03 mg/mL, less than about 0.01 mg/mL, less than about 0.003 mg/mL, or less than about 0.001 mg/mL at 25° C. The solid material may have these or other ranges of solubilities at any point throughout the pH range (e.g., from pH 1 to pH 14). A pharmaceutical agent that has a relatively high solubility in the solvent used in the milling process may be modified to form a prodrug of the pharmaceutical agent. The prodrug may have a relatively low solubility and thus may be suitable for the milling process. Upon or after the particles or pharmaceutical compositions comprising the prodrug are administered to a subject, the prodrug may be converted and form or, in other words, “release,” the pharmaceutical agent.

In other embodiments, the core and/or coated particles may be formed by an emulsification process or technique (emulsification) known in the art. See, e.g., U.S. patent application U.S. Ser. No. 13/886,602. The core and/or coated particles may also be formed by a precipitation process or technique (precipitation). Precipitation techniques (e.g., microprecipitation, nanoprecipitation, crystallization, and controlled crystallization) may involve forming a first solution comprising the material that is to form the core (e.g., a pharmaceutical agent) and a first solvent, wherein the material has a relatively high solubility in the first solvent. The first solution may be added to a second solution comprising a second solvent that is an anti-solvent, in which the material has a relatively low solubility, thereby forming a plurality of particles comprising the material. In certain embodiments, the second solvent is miscible with the first solvent. In some embodiments, one or more surface-altering agents and/or surfactants may be present in the first and/or second solutions. A coating may be formed during the process of precipitating the core (e.g., the coating of the particles may be formed substantially simultaneously when the precipitation is performed) to form the coated particles of the invention.

In other embodiments, the core of the particles of the invention is first formed using a precipitation technique, following by coating of the core with a surface-altering agent to form the coated particles of the invention.

In some embodiments, a precipitation technique may be used to form polymeric core of the particles of the invention with or without a pharmaceutical agent. Generally, a precipitation technique involves dissolving a polymer that is to form the core in a first solvent, in the presence or absence of a pharmaceutical agent, to form a solution. The solution is then added to a second solvent that is an anti-solvent and is miscible with the first solvent, in the presence or absence of one or more excipients, to form the core of the particles. In some embodiments, precipitation is useful for preparing a polymeric core comprising one or more pharmaceutical agents having a relatively low aqueous solubility.

The precipitation described herein involves the use of a first solvent. Examples of suitable first solvents for precipitation include organic solvents (e.g., acetone, acetonitrile, dimethylformamide, dimethysulfoxide, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, 2-pyrrolidone, and tetrahydrofuran) and inorganic solvents.

The precipitation described herein also involves the use of a second solvent. In certain embodiments, the second solvent suitable for precipitation is an anti-solvent. Examples of second solvents suitable for precipitation include the solvents described herein that may be used for milling. In some embodiments, the second solvents suitable for precipitation is water, an aqueous solution (e.g., a buffered solution), an alcohol (e.g., methanol, ethanol, propanol, or butanol), or a mixture thereof, optionally including one or more other components, such as pharmaceutical excipients, polymers, and pharmaceutical agents.

Surface-altering agents for the emulsification and precipitation described herein may be polymers or surfactants, including the surface-altering agents described herein that may be used for milling.

Examples of polymers suitable for forming all or part of the core of the particles of the invention by the emulsification or precipitation include the polymers (including copolymers) described herein.

In some embodiments, a precipitation technique may be used to form particles comprised predominantly of a pharmaceutical agent (e.g., a compound of the invention). In certain embodiments, the particles of the invention formed by the precipitation technique comprise predominantly of a pharmaceutical agent that is a nanocrystal. Generally, such a precipitation technique involves dissolving the pharmaceutical agent that is to form the core in a first solvent, which is then added to a second solvent that is an anti-solvent, in which the pharmaceutical agent has a relatively low solubility, in the presence or absence of one or more pharmaceutical excipients, to form the core or uncoated particle. In some embodiments, this technique may be useful for preparing, for example, particles of pharmaceutical agents that are slightly soluble (1-10 mg/mL), very slightly soluble (0.1-1 mg/mL) or practically insoluble (<0.1 mg/mL) in aqueous solutions (e.g., agents having a relatively low aqueous solubility).

A pharmaceutical agent described herein (e.g., a compound of the invention) may have a suitable solubility in the first and second solvents suitable for precipitation, such as a solubility in one or more ranges described herein for aqueous solubility or for solubility in a coating solution. A pharmaceutical agent having a relatively high solubility in the first solvent (e.g., an organic solvent) may be preferred. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent substantially or completely dissolves in the first solvent. A pharmaceutical agent having a relatively low solubility in the second solvent (e.g., water or a coating solution) may also be preferred. In certain embodiments, the solubility of the pharmaceutical agent in a mixture of the first and second solvents is lower than the solubility of the pharmaceutical agent in the first solvent. The relatively high solubility and relatively low solubility are as described herein. A pharmaceutical agent that has a relatively high solubility in the second solvent may be modified to form a prodrug of the pharmaceutical agent. The prodrug may have a relatively low solubility in the second solvent and still have a relatively high solubility in the first solvent and thus may be suitable for precipitation. Upon or after the particles or pharmaceutical compositions comprising the prodrug are administered to a subject, the prodrug may be converted and form or, in other words, “release,” the pharmaceutical agent.

Precipitation by formation of a salt or complex may also be used to form particles comprised predominantly of a salt or complex of a pharmaceutical agent. In certain embodiments, the particles formed by this specific precipitation technique comprise predominantly of a pharmaceutical agent that is a nanocrystal. Generally, precipitation by formation of a salt or complex involves dissolving a pharmaceutical agent that is to form the core in a solvent, in the presence or absence of one or more excipients, followed by the addition of a counterion or a complexing agent, which forms a salt or a complex with the pharmaceutical agent to form the core. All counterions described herein are contemplated to be within the scope of the invention. This technique may be useful for preparing particles comprising pharmaceutical agents that have a relatively high solubility in the second solvent (e.g., water or a coating solution). In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent has a relatively high solubility in the second solvent, and the salt or complex of the pharmaceutical agent has a relatively low solubility in the second solvent. The relatively high solubility and relatively low solubility are as described herein. In some embodiments, pharmaceutical agents having one or more charged or ionizable groups interact with a counterion (e.g., a cation or an anion) to form a salt or complex.

A variety of different acids may be used in a precipitation process involving formation of a salt or complex. Examples of acids suitable for precipitation include deconoic acid, hexanoic acid, mucic acid, octanoic acid. In other embodiments, a suitable acid may include acetic acid, adipic acid, L-ascorbic acid, L-aspartic acid, capric acid (decanoic acid), carbonic acid, citric acid, fumaric acid, galactaric acid, D-glucoheptonic acid, D-gluconic acid, D-glucuronic acid, glutamic acid, glutaric acid, glycerophosphoric acid, glycolic acid, hippuric acid, hydrochloric acid, DL-lactic acid, lauric acid, maleic acid, (−)-L-malic acid, palmitic acid, phosphoric acid, sebacic acid, stearic acid, succinic acid, sulfuric acid, (+)-L-tartaric acid, or thiocyanic acid. In other embodiments, a suitable acid may include alginic acid, benzenesulfonic acid, benzoic acid, (+)-camphoric acid, caprylic acid (octanoic acid), cyclamic acid, dodecylsulfuric acid, ethane-1,2-disulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, 2-hydroxy-, gentisic acid, glutaric acid, 2-oxo-, isobutyric acid, lactobionic acid, malonic acid, methanesulfonic acid, naphthalene-1,5-disulfonic acid, naphthalene-2-sulfonic acid, 2-naphthoic acid, 1-hydroxy-, nicotinic acid, oleic acid, orotic acid, oxalic acid, pamoic acid, (embonic acid), propionic acid, (−)-L-pyroglutamic acid, or p-toluenesulfonic acid. In yet other embodiments, a suitable acid may include acetic acid, 2,2-dichloro-, benzoic acid, 4-acetamido-, (+)-camphor-10-sulfonic acid, caproic acid (hexanoic acid), cinnamic acid, formic acid, hydrobromic acid, DL-mandelic acid, nitric acid, salicylic acid, salicylic acid, 4-amino-, and undecylenic acid (undec-10-enoic acid). Mixtures of two or more acids can also be used.

A variety of different bases may also be used in a precipitation process involving formation of a salt or complex. Examples of bases suitable for precipitation include ammonia, L-arginine, calcium hydroxide, choline, glucamine, N-methyl-, lysine, magnesium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, or sodium hydroxide. In other embodiments, a suitable base may include benethamine, benzathine, betaine, deanol, diethylamine, ethanol, 2-(diethylamino)-, hydrabamine, morpholine, 4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-, pyrrolidine, 1-(2-hyroxyethyl)-, or tromethamine. In other embodiments, a suitable base may include diethanolamine (2,2′-iminobis(ethanol)), ethanolamine (2-aminoethanol), ethylenediamine, IH-imidazole, piperazine, triethanolamine (2,2′,2″-nitrilotris(ethanol)), and zinc hydroxide. Mixtures of two or more bases can also be used.

Examples of solvents suitable for precipitation involving formation of a salt or complex include the solvents described herein that may be used for milling. In some embodiments, the first or second solvent suitable for precipitation involving formation of a salt or complex is water, an aqueous solution (e.g., a buffered solution), an alcohol (e.g., methanol, ethanol, propanol, or butanol), or a mixture thereof, optionally including one or more other components, such as pharmaceutical excipients, polymers, and pharmaceutical agents.

The first or second solvent suitable for precipitation may include one or more surface-altering agents as described herein, and therefore, a coating comprising the one or more surface-altering agents may be formed around the core to provide the coated particles of the invention as they precipitate out of solution. The one or more surface-altering agents may be present in the first or second solvent at any suitable concentration, such as a concentration of at least about 0.001% (w/v), at least about 0.003% (w/v), at least about 0.01% (w/v), at least about 0.03% (w/v), at least about 0.1% (w/v), at least about 0.3% (w/v), at least about 1% (w/v), or at least about 3% (w/v). In some embodiments, the one or more surface-altering agents are present in the first or second solvent at a concentration of less than about 3% (w/v), less than about 1% (w/v), less than about 0.3% (w/v), less than about 0.1% (w/v), less than about 0.05% (w/v), less than about 0.01% (w/v), or less than about 0.003% (w/v). Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., a concentration of at least about 0.01 (w/v) and less than about 1% (w/v). Other ranges are also possible. In certain embodiments, the one or more surface-altering agents are present in the first solvent but absent in the second solvent. In certain embodiments, the one or more surface-altering agents are present in the second solvent but absent in the first solvent. In certain embodiments, the one or more surface-altering agents are present in both the first and second solvents.

Another exemplary method of forming the core and/or coated particle is a freeze-drying process or technique known in the art. See, e.g., U.S. patent application U.S. Ser. No. 13/886,602.

Other methods of forming core particles are also possible. For example, additional techniques of forming the core and/or coated particles include coacervation-phase separation, melt dispersion, interfacial deposition, in situ polymerization, self-assembly of macromolecules (e.g., formation of polyelectrolyte complexes or polyelectrolyte-surfactant complexes), spray-drying and spray-congealing, electro-spray, air suspension coating, pan and spray coating, freeze-drying, air drying, vacuum drying, fluidized-bed drying, precipitation (e.g., nanoprecipitation, microprecipitation), critical fluid extraction, and lithographic approaches (e.g., soft lithography, step and flash imprint lithography, interference lithography, and photolithography). Combinations of the methods described herein are also possible. In some embodiments, a core of a pharmaceutical agent is first formed by precipitation, and then the size of the core is reduced by a milling process, optionally a coating is form on the core by the milling process.

Following the formation of the core of the particles including a pharmaceutical agent, the core may be optionally exposed to a solution comprising a (second) surface-altering agent that may associate with and/or coat the core. In embodiments in which the pharmaceutical agent already includes a coating of a first surface-altering agent, all or part of the first surface-altering agent may be exchanged with a second surface-altering agent. In some embodiments, the second surface-altering agent renders the particle mucus penetrating more than the first surface-altering agent does. In some embodiments, a particle having a coating including multiple surface-altering agents is formed (e.g., in a single layer or in multiple layers). In some embodiments, a particle having multiple coatings (e.g., each coating optionally comprising different surface-altering agents) may be formed. In some embodiments, the coating is in the form of a monolayer of a surface-altering agent. Other configurations are also possible.

In any of the methods described herein, a coating comprising a surface-altering agent may be formed on a core of the particles of the invention by incubating the core in a solution including the surface-altering agent for a period of at least about 1 minute, at least about 3 minutes, at least about 10 minutes, at least about 20 minutes, at least about 30 minutes, at least about 60 minutes, or more. In some cases, incubation may take place for a period of less than about 10 hours, less than about 3 hours, or less than about 60 minutes. Combinations of the above referenced ranges are also possible (e.g., an incubation period of less than 60 minutes and at least about 1 minute).

Methods of Treating/Uses

The present invention provides compounds, particles, and compositions thereof for treating a disease. In some embodiments, methods of treating a disease in a subject are provided which comprise administering an effective amount of a compound of Formula (I) of a compound of Formula (VI) to a subject in need of treatment. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is a therapeutically effective amount. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is a prophylactically effective amount. In certain embodiments, the subject is suffering from a growth factor-associated disease. In certain embodiments, the subject is susceptible to a growth factor-associated disease. In certain embodiments, the subject is at risk of developing macular degeneration.

The present invention further provides methods of inhibiting VEGF activity or signaling in a cell. In some embodiments, such methods comprise contacting a cell with an effective amount of a compound of Formula (I) or a compound of Formula (VI). In some embodiments, the cell is in vitro. In some embodiments, the cell is in vivo.

As used herein, the term “growth factor-associated disease” means any disease where growth factors are known to play a role. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the present disclosure relates to treating diseases in which growth factors are known to play a role. Such diseases include proliferative diseases, eye diseases, dermatological diseases, inflammation diseases, and metabolic diseases.

In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides methods of treating a disease comprising contacting a biological sample with an effective amount of a compound of Formula (I). In other embodiments, the present disclosure provides methods of treating a disease comprising contacting a biological sample with an effective amount of a compound of Formula (VI). In certain embodiments, the biological sample includes a cell or tissue. In some embodiments, the methods comprise inhibiting growth factor signaling in a cell, tissue, or subject. In some embodiments, the biological sample is an ocular tissue. In certain embodiments, the method is an in vitro method. In certain embodiments, the method is an in vivo method. It will be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art that levels of inhibition are not necessary to be 100%. The levels of inhibition can be at least 10% inhibition, about 10% to about 25% inhibition, about 25% to about 50% inhibition, about 50% to about 75% inhibition, at least 50% inhibition, at least 75% inhibition, about 80% inhibition, about 90% inhibition, or greater than 90% inhibition.

In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides methods to treat or prevent an ocular disease, i.e., a disease, ailment, or condition that affects or involves the eye or one or more of the parts or regions of the eye.

In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides a method to treat or prevent an ocular disease at the front of the eye of a subject. A front of the eye ocular disease includes post-surgical inflammation, uveitis, infections, aphakia, pseudophakia, astigmatism, blepharospasm, cataract, conjunctival diseases, conjunctivitis, corneal diseases, corneal ulcer, dry eye, dry eye syndromes, eyelid diseases, lacrimal apparatus diseases, lacrimal duct obstruction, myopia, presbyopia, pupil disorders, corneal neovascularization, refractive disorders and strabismus. Glaucoma can be considered to be a front of the eye ocular condition in some embodiments because a clinical goal of glaucoma treatment can be to reduce a hypertension of aqueous fluid in the anterior chamber of the eye (i.e., reduce intraocular pressure).

In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides a method to target and/or treat portions within the posterior portion or back of the eye, such as the retina, the choroid, and/or the sclera, of a subject. In general, a back of the eye or posterior ocular disease is a disease, ailment, or condition which primarily affects or involves a tissue or fluid at the back of the eye, as described herein. A posterior ocular disease can include a disease, ailment, or condition, such as intraocular melanoma, acute macular neuroretinopathy, Behcet's disease, choroidal neovascularization, uveitis, diabetic uveitis, histoplasmosis, infections, such as fungal or viral-caused infections, macular degeneration, such as acute macular degeneration, non-exudative age-related macular degeneration and exudative age related macular degeneration, edema, such as macular edema, cystoid macular edema and diabetic macular edema, multifocal choroiditis, ocular trauma which affects a posterior ocular site or location, ocular tumors, retinal disorders, such as central retinal vein occlusion, diabetic retinopathy (including proliferative diabetic retinopathy), proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR), retinal arterial occlusive disease, retinal detachment, uveitic retinal disease, sympathetic opthalmia, Vogt Koyanagi-Harada (VKH) syndrome, uveal diffusion, a posterior ocular condition caused by or influenced by an ocular laser treatment, posterior ocular conditions caused by or influenced by a photodynamic therapy, photocoagulation, radiation retinopathy, epiretinal membrane disorders, branch retinal vein occlusion, anterior ischemic optic neuropathy, non-retinopathy diabetic retinal dysfunction, retinitis pigmentosa, retinoblastoma, and glaucoma. Glaucoma can be considered a posterior ocular condition in some embodiments because the therapeutic goal is to prevent the loss of or reduce the occurrence of loss of vision due to damage to or loss of retinal cells or optic nerve cells (i.e., neuroprotection). In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides a method to treat, or prevent glaucoma in a subject. In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides a method to treat, or prevent uveitis in a subject.

In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides a method to treat or prevent dry eye in a subject. In some embodiments, the compositions described herein may address these issues by facilitating effective delivery of pharmaceutical agents to the appropriate tissues, promoting more even and/or wide-spread coverage across the eye surface, and/or avoiding or minimizing clearance of the pharmaceutical agent.

In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides a method to treat or prevent inflammation in the eye of a subject. Inflammation is associated with a variety of ocular diseases. Inflammation may also result from a number of ophthalmic surgical procedures, including cataract surgery. Corticosteroids are often used as ocular anti-inflammatory agents, however, they typically require frequent dosing.

In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides a method to treat or prevent age-related macular degeneration (AMD) in a subject. AMD is a medical condition that typically affects older adults and results in a loss of vision in the center of the visual field (the macula) because of damage to the retina. It occurs in “dry” and “wet” forms. It is a major cause of blindness and visual impairment in older adults (>50 years). In the dry (nonexudative) form, cellular debris called drusen accumulate between the retina and the choroid, and the retina can become detached. In the wet (exudative) form, which is more severe, blood vessels grow up from the choroid behind the retina, and the retina can also become detached.

In certain embodiments, the compounds, particles, compositions, and/or formulations described herein are packaged as a ready to use shelf stable suspension. Eye drop formulations are traditionally liquid formulations (solutions or suspensions) which can be packaged in dropper bottles (which dispense a standard drop volume of liquid) or in individual use droppers (typically used for preservative free drops, used once and disposed). These formulations are ready to use and can be self-administered. In some cases the bottle should be shaken before use to ensure homogeneity of the formulation, but no other preparation may be necessary. This may be the simplest and most convenient method of ocular delivery. The compositions and/or formulations described herein can be packaged in the same way as traditional eye drop formulations.

In some embodiments, compounds described here are useful in treating a proliferative disease, such as cancer, a benign neoplasm, an autoimmune disease, or an inflammatory disease.

In some embodiments, a provided compound is useful in treating a cancer. In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides a method to treat a cancer. In some embodiments, a provided compound is useful to delay the onset of, slow the progression of, or ameliorate the symptoms of cancer. In some embodiments, a provided compound is administered in combination with other compounds, drugs, or therapeutics to treat cancer.

In some embodiments, compounds described herein are useful for treating a cancer including, but not limited to, acoustic neuroma, adenocarcinoma, adrenal gland cancer, anal cancer, angiosarcoma (e.g., lymphangiosarcoma, lymphangioendotheliosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma), appendix cancer, benign monoclonal gammopathy, biliary cancer (e.g., cholangiocarcinoma), bladder cancer, breast cancer (e.g., adenocarcinoma of the breast, papillary carcinoma of the breast, mammary cancer, medullary carcinoma of the breast), brain cancer (e.g., meningioma; glioma, e.g., astrocytoma, oligodendroglioma; medulloblastoma), bronchus cancer, carcinoid tumor, cervical cancer (e.g., cervical adenocarcinoma), choriocarcinoma, chordoma, craniopharyngioma, colorectal cancer (e.g., colon cancer, rectal cancer, colorectal adenocarcinoma), epithelial carcinoma, ependymoma, endotheliosarcoma (e.g., Kaposi's sarcoma, multiple idiopathic hemorrhagic sarcoma), endometrial cancer (e.g., uterine cancer, uterine sarcoma), esophageal cancer (e.g., adenocarcinoma of the esophagus, Barrett's adenocarinoma), Ewing sarcoma, eye cancer (e.g., intraocular melanoma, retinoblastoma), familiar hypereosinophilia, gall bladder cancer, gastric cancer (e.g., stomach adenocarcinoma), gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST), head and neck cancer (e.g., head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, oral cancer (e.g., oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), throat cancer (e.g., laryngeal cancer, pharyngeal cancer, nasopharyngeal cancer, oropharyngeal cancer)), hematopoietic cancers (e.g., leukemia such as acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) (e.g., B-cell ALL, T-cell ALL), acute myelocytic leukemia (AML) (e.g., B-cell AML, T-cell AML), chronic myelocytic leukemia (CML) (e.g., B-cell CML, T-cell CML), and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) (e.g., B-cell CLL, T-cell CLL); lymphoma such as Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) (e.g., B-cell HL, T-cell HL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) (e.g., B-cell NHL such as diffuse large cell lymphoma (DLCL) (e.g., diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL)), follicular lymphoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia/small lymphocytic lymphoma (CLL/SLL), mantle cell lymphoma (MCL), marginal zone B-cell lymphomas (e.g., mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphomas, nodal marginal zone B-cell lymphoma, splenic marginal zone B-cell lymphoma), primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma, Burkitt lymphoma, lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma (i.e., “Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia”), hairy cell leukemia (HCL), immunoblastic large cell lymphoma, precursor B-lymphoblastic lymphoma and primary central nervous system (CNS) lymphoma; and T-cell NHL such as precursor T-lymphoblastic lymphoma/leukemia, peripheral T-cell lymphoma (PTCL) (e.g., cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL) (e.g., mycosis fungiodes, Sezary syndrome), angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma, extranodal natural killer T-cell lymphoma, enteropathy type T-cell lymphoma, subcutaneous panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma, anaplastic large cell lymphoma); a mixture of one or more leukemia/lymphoma as described above; and multiple myeloma (MM)), heavy chain disease (e.g., alpha chain disease, gamma chain disease, mu chain disease), hemangioblastoma, inflammatory myofibroblastic tumors, immunocytic amyloidosis, kidney cancer (e.g., nephroblastoma a.k.a. Wilms' tumor, renal cell carcinoma), liver cancer (e.g., hepatocellular cancer (HCC), malignant hepatoma), lung cancer (e.g., bronchogenic carcinoma, small cell lung cancer (SCLC), non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), adenocarcinoma of the lung), leiomyosarcoma (LMS), mastocytosis (e.g., systemic mastocytosis), myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS), mesothelioma, myeloproliferative disorder (MPD) (e.g., polycythemia Vera (PV), essential thrombocytosis (ET), agnogenic myeloid metaplasia (AMM) a.k.a. myelofibrosis (MF), chronic idiopathic myelofibrosis, chronic myelocytic leukemia (CML), chronic neutrophilic leukemia (CNL), hypereosinophilic syndrome (HES)), neuroblastoma, neurofibroma (e.g., neurofibromatosis (NF) type 1 or type 2, schwannomatosis), neuroendocrine cancer (e.g., gastroenteropancreatic neuroendoctrine tumor (GEP-NET), carcinoid tumor), osteosarcoma, ovarian cancer (e.g., cystadenocarcinoma, ovarian embryonal carcinoma, ovarian adenocarcinoma), papillary adenocarcinoma, pancreatic cancer (e.g., pancreatic andenocarcinoma, intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm (IPMN), islet cell tumors), penile cancer (e.g., Paget's disease of the penis and scrotum), pinealoma, primitive neuroectodermal tumor (PNT), prostate cancer (e.g., prostate adenocarcinoma), rectal cancer, rhabdomyosarcoma, salivary gland cancer, skin cancer (e.g., squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), keratoacanthoma (KA), melanoma, basal cell carcinoma (BCC)), small bowel cancer (e.g., appendix cancer), soft tissue sarcoma (e.g., malignant fibrous histiocytoma (MFH), liposarcoma, malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor (MPNST), chondrosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, myxosarcoma), sebaceous gland carcinoma, sweat gland carcinoma, synovioma, testicular cancer (e.g., seminoma, testicular embryonal carcinoma), thyroid cancer (e.g., papillary carcinoma of the thyroid, papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC), medullary thyroid cancer), urethral cancer, vaginal cancer and vulvar cancer (e.g., Paget's disease of the vulva).

In some embodiments, a provided compound is useful in treating a metabolic disease, such as diabetes or obesity. In some embodiments, a provided compound is useful to delay the onset of, slow the progression of, or ameliorate the symptoms of, diabetes. In some embodiments, the diabetes is Type 1 diabetes. In some embodiments, the diabetes is Type 2 diabetes. In some embodiments, a provided compound is useful to delay the onset of, slow the progression of, or ameliorate the symptoms of, obesity. In some embodiments, a provided compound could be used in combination with other compounds, drugs, or therapeutics, such as metformin and insulin, to treat diabetes and/or obesity.

EXAMPLES

In order that the invention described herein may be more fully understood, the following examples are set forth. It should be understood that these examples are for illustrative purposes only and are not to be construed as limiting this invention in any manner.

Example 1: Synthesis of Compounds Under Scheme 1

Compound 100

Free phenol (1 equiv) and potassium carbonate (5 equiv) were suspended in N,N-dimethylformamide. Benzyl bromide (1.1 equiv) was added dropwise and the reaction stirred at 45° C. for 2 hours. The solvent was evaporated and the remaining crust suspended in H₂O. The slurry was sonicated and the solid filtered. Filter cake was washed with H₂O and hexane, then dried under high vacuum. 100 was isolated as light brown solid, yield=1.7 g (95%), m/z 300 (M+H)⁺.

Compounds 26 & 101

4-Amino-3-chlorophenol hydrochloride (1.1 to 1.5 equiv) was suspended in N,N-dimethylfomamide. The suspension was purged with nitrogen and sodium hydride (2 equiv, 60% suspension in oil) was added followed by potassium carbonate (2 equiv). 100 (1 equiv) was added and the suspension was purged with nitrogen again. The suspension was heated for 2 hours at 100° C. in an oil bath. The solvent was evaporated. The residue was treated with water and sonicated. The solid was filtered, washed with water and hexane, then dried under high vacuum overnight. 26 was isolated as purple solid, yield=1.42 g (98%), m/z=407 (M+H)⁺. The process was repeated using 4-Chloro-6-methoxy-7-benzyloxyquinazoline (1 equiv.) instead of 100. From this, 101 was isolated as off-white solid, yield=2.70 g (100%), m/z=408 (M+H)⁺.

Compounds 39, 27, 102, & 103

26 (1 equiv) was dissolved in dichloromethane. Triethylamine (4 equiv) was added and the solution was cooled to −78° C. Phosgene (1.1 equiv, 15% solution in toluene) was added and the solution stirred for 30 minutes at −78° C. It was warmed to room temperature over 30 minutes and stirred for 30 minutes at room temperature. Ar—NH₂ (3 equiv) was added and the reaction stirred overnight. The solvent was evaporated and the residue was suspended in diethyl ether. Ether was evaporated and the crude residue again suspended in diethyl ether and sonicated. The solid was filtered off and suspended in saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate. The solid was filtered and washed with water and hexane, then dried under high vacuum overnight. When Ar=A as described in Scheme 1 was used, 39 was isolated as reddish-brown solid, yield=0.64 g (72%), m/z=559 (M+H)⁺, and when Ar=B as described in Scheme 1 was used, 27 was isolated as reddish-brown solid, yield=0.86 g (92%), m/z=531 (M+H)⁺.

This process was repeated using 101 instead of 26. From this process, when Ar=A as described in Scheme 1 was used, 102 was isolated as yellow solid, yield=1.57 g (85%), m/z=559 (M+H)⁺, and when Ar=B as described in Scheme 1 was used, 103 was isolated as yellow solid, yield=1.72 g (100%), m/z=533 (M+H)⁺.

Compounds 40A, 28, 104, & 105

In separate processes, each of 39, 27, 102, and 103 (1 equiv) was dissolved in methanol or methanol-tetrahydrofuran mixture (4:1). Palladium catalyst (20 or 50% weight, 10% on carbon) was added and the solution was hydrogenated at 40-50 psi of hydrogen. The catalyst was filtered off on a pad of CELITE and the filtrate evaporated. Product was precipitated from hexane/dichloromethane (90:10) and filtered, then dried under high vacuum.

Alternatively, hydrogenation can be accomplished using hydrogen transfer conditions. Benzyl protected urea (1 equiv) was dissolved in trifluoroacetic acid. Palladium catalyst (15% weight, 10% on carbon) was added. Triethylsilane was added drop wise over 1 hour and the solution was stirred for 2 hours. The catalyst was filtered off on a small CELITE pad and the solvent evaporated. The residue was partitioned between hexane and saturated sodium bicarbonate (1:1) and sonicated. The solid was filtered, then dissolved in ethyl acetate-methanol (9:1). The solvent was evaporated to a small volume, then diethyl ether was added and the suspension sonicated. Solid was filtered and dried under high vacuum. When 39 was used, 40A was isolated as brown solid, yield=0.32 g (90%), m/z=468 (M+H)⁺. When 102 was used, 104 was isolated as off-white solid by hydrogenolysis, yield=0.36 g (86%) or as yellow solid by transfer hydrogenation, yield=1.24 g (99%), m/z=469 (M+H)⁺. When 27 was used, 28 was isolated as copper brown powder, yield=0.63 g (94%), m/z=441 (M+H)⁺. When 103 was used, 105 was isolated as cream solid, yield=0.41 g (100%), m/z=443 (M+H)⁺.

Compounds 106, 30, 107, and 108

In separate processes, each of 40A, 28, 104, and 105 (1 equiv) was dissolved in N,N-dimethylformamide. Potassium carbonate (3 equiv) was added followed by 1-bromo-3-chloropropane (3 equiv). The suspension was stirred at 45° C. for 3 hours. The solvent was evaporated and the residue was treated with aqueous sodium bicarbonate and sonicated. The precipitate was filtered off, washed with water and hexane. The precipitate was dissolved in ethyl acetate-methanol (4:1) and dried with magnesium sulfate. The solvent was evaporated, then product was dissolved in N,N-dimethylformamide. Potassium bromide (1.5 equiv) was added followed by potassium carbonate (5 equiv) and 2-oxa-7-azaspiro[3.5]nonane oxalate (2 equiv). The suspension was stirred at 85° C. for 4 hours. The solvent was evaporated and the residue was suspended in aqueous sodium bicarbonate and sonicated. Precipitate was filtered and dried under high vacuum. Final purification was achieved through prep HPLC. When 40A was used, 106 was isolated as off-white solid, yield=100 mg (63%), m/z=636 (M+H)⁺, ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 400 MHz): δ 1.89 (4h, m), 2.12 (2H, m), 2.34 (3H, s), 2.52 (2H, t), 4.01 (3H, s), 4.24 (2H, t), 4.42 (4H, s), 6.49 (1H, d), 6.86 (1H, m), 6.99 (1H, m), 7.14 (2H, d), 7.23 (1H, d), 7.31 (1H, s), 7.42, (1H, s), 7.49 (1H, s), 7.88 (1H, d), 8.31 (1H, d), 8.50 (1H, d). When 104 was used, 107 was isolated as white solid, yield=57 mg (38%), m/z=636 (M+H)⁺, ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 400 MHz): δ 1.59 (4H, s), 1.89 (4h, s), 2.12 (2H, m), 2.34 (3H, s), 2.51 (2H, t), 4.05 (3H, s), 4.26 (2H, t), 4.42 (4H, s), 6.85 (1H, m), 6.96 (2H, m), 7.21 (2H, dd), 7.33, (2H, s), 7.51 (1H, s), 7.88 (1H, d), 8.32 (1H, d), 8.62 (1H, s). When 28 was used, 30 was isolated as reddish-brown solid, yield=25 mg (10%), m/z=609 (M+1), ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 400 MHz): δ 1.88 (4h, m), 2.12 (2H, m), 2.36 (4H, bs), 2.43 (3H, s), 2.52 (2H, t), 4.01 (3H, s), 4.24 (2H, t), 4.41 (4H, s), 6.04 (1H, s), 6.50 (1H, d), 7.12 (1H, dd), 7.27, (1H, m), 7.42 (1H, s), 7.49 (1H, s), 8.37 (1H, d), 8.50 (1H, d). When 105 was used, 108 was isolated as gray solid, yield=10 mg (4%), m/z=610 (M+1), ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 400 MHz): δ 1.60 (3H, s), 1.88 (4h, m), 2.12 (2H, m), 2.43 (3H, s), 2.51 (2H, t), 4.04 (3H, s), 4.26 (2H, t), 4.41 (4H, s), 6.01 (1H, s), 7.20 (1H, dd), 7.32, (1H, s), 7.37 (1H, d), 7.50 (1H, s), 8.42 (1H, d), 8.61 (1H, s).

Example 2: Preparation of Compound 106

Compound 110

A mixture of 109 (100.0 g, 601.68 mmol), benzyl bromide (79.0 mL, 649.81 mmol) and potassium carbonate (249.0 g, 1.8 mol) in N,N-dimethylformamide (2000 mL) was heated to 40° C. overnight. The solution was cooled to room temperature, poured into ice water (1500 mL) and stirred for 1 h. The resultant solid was filtered and washed by H₂O (2×500 mL), dried to give 110 (148.8 g, yield=96.5%) as a white solid.

Compound 111

HNO₃ (60.9 mL) was added dropwise to a solution of 110 (148.8 g, 580.57 mmol) in dichloromethane (2500 mL) at 0° C. The reaction mixture was stirred for 20 min at 0° C. H₂SO₄ (47.2 mL) was added and the mixture was stirred for another 45 min. Additional HNO₃ (41.5 mL) was added dropwise over 20 min. The reaction mixture was poured into ice water (1500 mL) and stirred for 30 min. The organic phase was separated and washed with water (4×1000 mL) and saturated NaHCO₃ (800 mL), dried over Na₂SO₄, and concentrated in vacuo. The residue was trituated three times with methanol (500 mL) at reflux. The solid was filtered and dried in high vacuum to give 111 (126.9 g, yield=72.5%) as a light yellow solid.

Compound 112

A suspension of 111 (70 g, 232.33 mmol), Fe (61.6 g, 929.32 mmol) and ammonium acetate (89.1 g, 975.79 mmol) in a mixture of toluene/H₂O (1150 mL/1150 mL) was stirred at 105° C. overnight. The mixture was cooled to room temperature, diluted with ethyl acetate (1500 mL), stirred for 3 h at room temperature and filtered. The filtrate was washed with H₂O (2×500 mL) and brine (500 mL), then dried over Na₂SO₄. The solution was concentrated in vacuum to give 112 (63.8 g, yield=100%) as a light brown solid.

Compound 113

To a solution of 112 (59.2 g, 218.21 mmol) in dimethoxyethane (1500 mL) was added sodium methoxide (47.1 g, 873 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred for 30 min under N₂. Ethyl formate was added and the mixture was stirred overnight. The reaction mixture was diluted with H₂O (800 mL) and acidified to pH 7 with 1M HCl. The precipitate was filtered and washed with water (2×300 mL), then dried under high vacuum to afford 113 (38.9 g, yield=63.4%) as a brown solid.

Compound 114

POCl₃ (385 mL) was added to 113 (38.5 g, 136.86 mmol) and the mixture was stirred for 6 h at reflux temperature. About 300 mL POCl₃ was removed by vacuum. The residue was carefully poured into ice water (600 mL) and the pH was adjusted to 8 with saturated NaHCO₃. The solution was stirred for 4 h. The solid was filtered and washed with water, then dried to give 114 (28.6 g, yield=69.7%) as a brown solid.

Compound 115

Compound 114 (16 g, 53.37 mmol) was dissolved in trifluoroacetic acid (100 mL) and MeSO₃H (6.1 mL, 93.94 mmol) was added in one portion. The reaction mixture was stirred at reflux for 3 h and was then cooled to room temperature. The solvent was evaporated and the pH of the residue was adjusted to 7 with 2.5 N NaOH. The resultant solid was crushed into small pieces and the mixture was stirred vigorously for 2 h. The solid was filtered and dried under high vacuum to afford 115 (11.3 g, yield=100%) as a light brown solid.

Compound 116

Compound 115 (36.5 g, 174.14 mmol), 1-bromo-3-chloropropane (123.5 mL) and K₂CO₃ (239.9 g, 1738.11 mmol) were suspended in N,N-dimethyl formamide (1500 mL) and stirred at room temperature for 16 h. The suspension was filtered and the filtrate was concentrated. The residue was diluted with ethyl acetate (1000 mL) and H₂O (1000 mL). The aqueous phase was extracted with ethyl acetate (500 mL×2) and the combined organic phase was washed with H₂O (1000 mL) and brine (500 mL×6), dried over Na₂SO₄ and concentrated in vacuum to give 116 (38.9 g, yield=78.1%) as a brown solid.

Compound 117

2-oxa-7-azaspiro[3.5]nonane (16.6 g, 129 mmol), K₂CO₃ (29.7 g, 215.2 mmol) and NaI (9.7 g, 64.92 mmol) were added to a solution of 116 (12.3 g, 42.9 mmol) in N,N-dimethyl formamide (1500 mL). The reaction was stirred at 70° C. for 16 h under N₂. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and water (2 L) was added. After extraction with ethyl acetate, the combined organic phase was washed with H₂O (2×500 mL), brine (6×300 ml) and dried over Na₂SO₄. The solution was concentrated in vacuum to give a brown solid. The brown solid was stirred in a mixture of hexanes/ethyl acetate (200 mL/4 mL) for 2 h, filtered and dried to give 117 (13.7 g, yield=84.6%) as a light brown solid.

Compound 118

Potassium tert-butoxide (4.7 g, 42 mmol) and 4-amino-3-chlorophenol hydrochloride (3.1 g, 16.8 mmol) were added to a solution of 117 (5.3 g, 14 mmol) in dimethylacetamide (30 mL). The solution was stirred at 98° C. overnight under N₂. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and poured into ice water (100 mL) when the reaction was completed. The solution was extracted with ethyl acetate (3×100 mL). The combined organic phase was washed by brine (5×100 mL), dried over Na₂SO₄, and concentrated to give a brown solid. The crude product was purified by gel-silica (methanol:dichloromethane=1:20) to afford 118 (4.4 g, yield=64.7%) as a brown solid.

Compound 106

A mixture of 2-fluoro-5-methylaniline (4.6 g, 36.8 mmol) and triethyl amine (7.4 g, 73.6 mmol) in toluene (70 mL) was added dropwise to a solution of triphosgene (11.2 g, 40.5 mmol) in toluene (80 mL) at 0° C. The reaction was stirred for 3 h at room temperature and then 2 h at 80° C. Toluene was removed by concentration. To the resultant residue was added 118 (4.4 g, 9.1 mmol) in toluene (80 mL) and the reaction mixture was stirred overnight at 70° C. The reaction mixture was then cooled to room temperature and poured into ice water (100 mL) and stirred for 2 h. The solid was filtered and washed with H₂O (3×30 mL) and ethyl acetate (30 mL), then dried over Na₂SO₄ and concentrated to give 106 (2.9 g, yield=50.2%) as an off white solid. m/z 635.4 [M+H]⁺. ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 400 MHz): δ 1.94 (4H, bs); 2.16 (2H, bs); 2.43 (9H, m); 4.01 (3H, s); 4.22 (2H, t); 4.43 (4H, s); 6.48 (1H, d); 6.85 (1H, m); 6.95 (1H, dd); 7.12 (1H, dd); 7.22 (1H, d); 7.34 (1H, s); 7.45 (4H, m); 7.89 (1H, m); 8.30 (1H, d); 8.50 (1H, d).

Example 3: Preparation of Compound 9

Compound 1

To a solution of methyl vanillate (150 g, 0.82 mol) in dry N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) (1200 mL) was added 1-bromo-3-chloropropane (259.6 g, 1.65 mol) and K₂CO₃ (341 g, 2.47 mol). The mixture was stirred at 50° C. overnight. The reaction mixture was poured into water (300 mL) filtered, the solid was washed with water (500 mL) then hexane (250 mL), and dried to give 209 g (yield=97.9%) of 1 as a white solid.

Compound 2

1 (160 g, 0.62 mol) was taken in acetic acid (1100 mL) and acetic anhydride (90 mL) was added. The solution was cooled to 00° C. and nitric acid (90 mL) was added. The reaction mixture was stirred for 10 minutes at room temperature, then heated to 50° C. for 5 h. The reaction mixture was cooled and was diluted with ethyl acetate (5000 mL). The ethyl acetate layer was washed with aq. NaHCO₃ (2000 mL) and concentrated to afford 180 g (yield=95.8%) of 2 as a yellow solid.

Compound 3

To a solution of 2 (170 g, 559 mmol) in ethyl acetate/methanol (1500 mL, 3:1) was added wet Pd/C (10%/w, 17.0 g). The reaction was stirred under H₂ balloon at room temperature overnight. The reaction mixture was filtered through a pad of CELITE and the filtrate was concentrated to give 170 g (yield=100%) of 3 as a yellow solid.

Compound 4

To a solution of 3 (48 g, 175 mmol) in methanol (150 mL) was added methyl orthoformate (46.4 g, 438 mmol), ammonium acetate (33.7 g, 438 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred at reflux for 5 h. Water (200 mL) was added to the reaction mixture to precipitate a crystalline product. The crystalline product was collected by filtration, washed with water (200 mL) and methanol (50 mL), then dried under reduced pressure to give 44 g (yield=93.4%) of 4 as a white solid.

Compound 5

The mixture of 4 (75 g, 279 mmol) and POCOl₃ (100 mL) in toluene (500 mL) was stirred at reflux until the solution became clear. The solution was concentrated under reduced pressure and the residue was poured into ice water. After filtration, the solid was washed with water (500 mL×2) and dried to give 65 g (yield=81.2%) of 5 as a yellow solid.

Compound 6

The mixture of 5 (5 g, 17.4 mmol), 4-amino-3-chlorophenol.HCl (5.33 g, 29.6 mmol), and Cs₂C03 (17 g, 52.3 mmol) in THF (60 mL) was stirred at 50° C. overnight. The reaction mixture was diluted with ethyl acetate, and the ethyl acetate layer was washed with water (50 mL×1) and brine (50 mL×1) successively. The organic layer was dried with Na₂SO₄ and concentrated to dryness. The residue was purified by silica column (petroleum ether:ethyl acetate=10:1 to 2:1) to give 4.6 g (yield=67%) of 6 as a pink solid.

Compound 7

To the solution of triphosgene in toluene (30 mL) was added the mixture of 3-amino-5-methylisoxazole (4.85 g, 49.5 mmol) and triethyl amine (10 g, 99 mmol) in toluene (20 mL) dropwise at 00° C. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 3 h then 80° C. for 2 h. The reaction solution was concentrated in vacuum to give 7 as a white solid.

Compound 8

Compound 7 was dissolved in toluene (50 mL) and 6 (13 g, 33 mmol) was added. The mixture was heated to 70° C. for 4 h. The reaction mixture was poured into ice water (100 mL) and extracted with ethyl acetate (200 mL×2). The organic phase was washed with brine (100 mL×4), dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated. The residue was purified by silica column (petroleum ether:ethyl acetate=5:1 to 1:1) to give 15 g (purity=80%, yield=87.8%) of 8 as a pink solid.

Compound 9

To the solution of 8 (15 g, 29 mmol, 80% pure) in N,N-dimethyl formamide (120 mL) was added 2-oxa-7-azaspiro[3.5]nonane hemioxalate (9.19 g, 72.4 mmol), tetrabutyl ammonium iodide (10.69 g, 29 mmol), and diisopropylethylamine (11.2 g, 86.9 mmol). The mixture was heated to 60° C. overnight. The reaction solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (200 mL) and washed with brine (100 mL×5). The combined organic phase was dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated to give the crude product as a black solid. The crude product was purified by silica column (dichloromethane:methanol=50:1 to 10:1) to give 5.1 g (yield=28.9%) of 9 as a pink solid. m/z 609.4 [M+H]⁺. ¹H-NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 1.75 (4H, s); 1.92 (2H, m); 2.26 (4H; m); 2.26 (5H, s); 3.95 (3H, s); 4.10 (6H, m); 6.50 (1H, s); 7.29 (2H, m); 7.31 (2H, m); 8.17 (1H, d); 8.54 (1H, s); 8.74 (1H, s); 10.16 (1H, s).

Example 4: Preparation of Compound 12

Compound 10

To a solution of triphosgene in toluene (30 mL) was added the mixture of 2-fluoro-5-methylaniline (4.76 g, 38.07 mmol) and triethylamine (7.69 g, 76.14 mmol) in toluene (20 mL) dropwise at 0° C. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 3 h then at 80° C. for 2 h. The reaction solution was concentrated under vacuum to give the crude product 10 as a white solid.

Compound 11

Compound 10 was dissolved in toluene (50 mL) and 6 (10 g, 25.38 mmol) was added. The mixture was heated to 70° C. for 4 h. The reaction mixture was poured into ice water and extracted with ethyl acetate (200 mL×2). The organic phases were combined, washed with brine (100 mL×4), dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated. The residue was purified by silica column (petroleum ether: ethyl acetate=2:1) to give 12 g (purity=80%, yield=86.8%) of 11 as a pink solid.

Compound 12

To a solution of 11 (15 g, 27.5 mmol, 80% pure) in N,N-dimethyl formamide (120 mL) was added 2-oxa-7-azaspiro[3.5]nonane hemioxalate (9.10 g, 71.56 mmol), tetrabutylammonium iodide (10.16 g, 27.52 mmol), and diisopropylethyl amine (10.65 g, 82.57 mmol). The mixture was heated to 60° C. overnight. The reaction solution diluted with ethyl acetate (200 mL) and washed with brine (100 mL×5), concentrated to give the crude product as a black solid. The crude product was purified by silica column (dichloromethane:methanol=50:1 to 10:1) to give 5.3 g (yield=30.3%) of 12 as a pink solid. m/z 636.4 [M+H]⁺. ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 400 MHz): δ 1.25 (2H, s); 2.01 (4H, bs); 2.20 (5H, m); 2.68 (4H, m); 4.03 (3H, s); 4.23 (2H, t); 4.44 (4H, s); 6.81 (1H, m); 6.92 (1H, dd); 7.19 (1H, dd); 7.32 (2H, m); 7.44 (1H, m); 7.52 (2H, m); 7.91 (1H, d); 8.31 (1H, d); 8.59 (1H, s).

Example 5: Preparation of Compound 14

Compound 13

To a solution of 6 (17.30 g, 43.91 mmol) in N,N-dimethylformamide (150 mL) was added 2-oxa-7-azaspiro[3.5]nonane hemioxalate (11.15 g, 87.82 mmol), tetrabutylammonium iodide (16.20 g, 43.91 mmol) and DIPEA (16.99 g, 131.73 mmol). The reaction mixture was heated to 60° C. and stirred overnight. The reaction mixture was diluted with ethyl acetate (200 mL) and washed with brine (100 mL×5). The organic phase was concentrated to give the crude product as a black solid. The crude product was purified by silica column (dichloromethane:methanol=50:1 to 10:1) to give 15 g (yield=70.4%) of 13 as a light brown solid.

Compound 14

1,3-Dimethyl-1H-pyrazole-5-carboxylic acid acid (0.10 g, 0.69 mmol) was suspended in dichloromethane (3 mL). Oxalyl chloride (0.25 mL, 2.9 mmol) was added followed by catalytic amount of N,N-dimethylformamide (1 drop). The solution was stirred for 2 h. The solvent was removed and the residue was re-dissolved in dichloromethane (5 mL). The solvent was again removed leaving an oil. The material was dissolved in dichloromethane (3 mL) and added to the solution of aniline 13 (0.24 g, 0.5 mmol) and triethylamine (0.15 mL, 1.0 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (5 mL). The solution was stirred for 2 h and then partitioned between ethyl acetate and aqueous sodium bicarbonate. The organic solution was dried with magnesium sulfate and evaporated leaving an oil (0.4 g). Purification was performed using reverse phase flash chromatography to yield 14 as off white solid (84 mg) m/z: 607.2 [M+H]⁺. ¹H NMR: (DMSO-d6): δ 10.02 (s, 1H), 8.58 (s, 1H), 7.66-7.61 (m, 2H), 7.55 (s, 1H), 7.40-7.38 (m, 2H), 6.86 (s, 1H), 4.27 (s, 4H), 4.23 (t, J=6.5 Hz, 2H), 4.01 (s, 3H), 3.98 (s, 3H), 2.40 (t, J=6.5 Hz, 2H), 2.34-2.18 (m, 4H), 2.21 (s, 3H), 1.99-1.93 (m, 2H), 1.82-1.70 (m, 4H).

Example 6: Preparation of Compound 15

Compound 15

Triethylamine (1.12 mL, 8 mmol) was added to a solution of 13 (970 mg, 2 mmol) in dichloromethane and cooled to −78° C. Phosgene (15% solution in toluene, 1.45 mL, 2.2 mmol) was added dropwise and the reaction stirred for 30 minutes at −78° C., then at room temperature for 30 minutes. A solution of 4-chloro-3-(trifluoromethyl)aniline (1.17 g, 6 mmol) in dichloromethane was added dropwise and the reaction stirred overnight. A small amount of methanol was added and the solvent evaporated by rotary evaporator. Dichloromethane was added and the solvent evaporated again. Crude product was precipitated from diethylether or hexane/dichloromethane and filtered. Final purification was achieved by prep LC to yield 79 mg (0.11 mmol, Yield=6%) of 15 as a white solid. m/z: 706.2 [M]. ¹H-NMR (DMSO-d6, 500 MHz): b 1.77 (6H, t); 1.96 (3H, m); 2.40 (4H, t); 3.97 (5H, s); 4.22 (3H, t); 4.27 (7H, s); 7.30 (1H, dd); 7.37 (1H, s); 7.54 (1H, s); 7.56 (1H, d); 7.64 (3H, m); 8.15 (3H, m); 8.56 (1H, s).

Example 7: Preparation of Compound 16

Compound 16

Triethylamine (1.15 mL, 8.24 mmol) was added to a solution of 13 (1 g, 2.06 mmol) in dichloromethane and cooled to −78° C. Phosgene (15% solution in toluene, 3 mL, 4.52 mmol) was added dropwise and the reaction stirred for 30 minutes at −78° C., then at room temperature for 30 minutes. 3-aminothiophene (612 mg, 6.18 mmol) in dichloromethane (2 mL) was added dropwise and the reaction stirred overnight. A small amount of methanol was added and the solvent evaporated by rotary evaporator. dichloromethane was added and the solvent evaporated again. Crude product was precipitated from diethylether/dichloromethane and filtered to yield pink solid. 1.25 g crude was suspended in saturated aqueous NaHCO₃ and extracted with 10% methanol/dichloromethane. Organics were dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and evaporated by rotary evaporation. Remaining solid was dissolved in ethyl acetate (10 mL) and sonicated to induce crystallization. Crystalline product was filtered and dried under high vacuum overnight to give 325 mg (Yield=6.47%) of 16 as a tan powder. m/z 610.2 [M]. ¹H-NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 1.77 (4H, t); 1.96 (2H, m); 2.28 (4H, bs); 2.41 (2H, t); 3.97 (3H, s); 4.22 (2H, t); 4.27 (4H, s); 5.76 (1H, s); 7.05 (1H, d); 7.31 (2H, m); 7.36 (1H, s); 7.47 (1H, dd); 7.54 (2H, s); 8.23 (1H, d); 8.33 (1H, s); 9.68 (1H, s).

Example 8: Preparation of Compound 17

Compound 17

Triethylamine (1.15 mL, 8.24 mmol) was added to a solution of 13 (1 g, 2.06 mmol) in dichloromethane and cooled to −78° C. Phosgene (15% solution in toluene, 3 mL, 4.52 mmol) was added dropwise and the reaction stirred for 30 minutes at −78° C., then at room temperature for 30 minutes. Propylamine (508 μL, 6.18 mmol) in DCM (2 mL) was added dropwise and the reaction stirred overnight. A small amount of methanol was added and the solvent evaporated by rotary evaporator. Dichloromethane was added and the solvent evaporated again. Crude product was precipitated from 10:1 hexane/dichloromethane and filtered. Crude was suspended in saturated aqueous NaHCO₃ and extracted with 10% methanol/dichloromethane. Organics were dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and evaporated by rotary evaporation. Remaining solid was dissolved in ethyl acetate (10 mL) and sonicated to induce crystallization. Crystalline product was filtered and dried under high vacuum overnight to give 900 mg (1.58 mmol, Yield=77%) of 17 as off-white solid. m/z 570.3 [M]. ¹H-NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 0.89 (3H, t); 1.45 (2H, q); 1.76 (4H, m); 1.94 (2H, m); 3.06 (2H, q); 3.95 (3H, s); 4.20 (2H, t); 4.22 (4H, s); 5.74 (1H, s); 6.98 (1H, t); 7.20 (1H, dd); 7.35 (1H, s); 7.45 (1H, d); 7.52 (1H, s); 8.03 (1H, s); 8.19 (1H, d); 8.53 (1H, s).

Example 9: Preparation of Compound 126 (4-Chloro-6-Methoxy-Quinazolin-7-ol)

Compound 119

A mixture of methyl vanillate (300.0 g, 1.65 mol), benzyl chloride (230 mL, 1.81 mol) and potassium carbonate (345 g, 2.5 mol) in N,N-dimethyl formamide (1000 mL) was heated to 100° C. for three hours. The reaction was cooled to room temperature, poured into ice water (1500 mL) and stirred for 1 h. The resultant solid was filtered and washed by water (300 mL×3), then dried to give 119 (440 g, yield=98.0%) as a white solid.

Compound 120

A mixture of HNO₃ (95%, 1000 mL) and acetic acid (1000 mL) was placed in an ice bath and stirred. Compound 119 (440 g, 1.62 mol) in acetic acid (2500 mL) was added dropwise at −10° C. After addition, the mixture was stirred at −10° C. for 20 min, then poured onto a mixture of ice and water (2 L). The mixture was neutralized by the addition of saturated aqueous sodium hydroxide solution to pH 7 and solid precipitated out. The precipitate was collected by filtration, washed with water (300 mL×3) and dried to yield 120 (495 g, yield 97.1%) as a grey solid.

Compound 121

A suspension of 120 (495 g, 1.56 mol), Fe (305.7 g, 5.46 mol) and NH₄Cl (337.0 g, 6.24 mol) in a mixture of methanol/H₂O (1500 mL/500 mL) was stirred at 105° C. overnight. The mixture was cooled to room temperature, diluted with ethyl acetate (1500 mL), stirred for 3 h at room temperature and filtered. The filtrate was washed with water (500 mL×3) and brine (500 mL×3), then dried over Na₂SO₄. The solution was concentrated in vacuum to give 121 (363.8 g, yield=81%) as a light brown solid.

Compound 122

In a 3 L volume stainless pressure-resistant vessel equipped with a stirrer, a thermometer and a pressure gauge were placed 121 (363.8 g, 1.267 mol), methyl orthoformate (336.0 g, 3.167 mol), ammonium acetate (243.9 g, 3.167 mol), and methanol (1500 mL). The vessel was closed, and the reaction was carried out at 100° C. overnight. After the reaction was complete, water (1500 mL) was added to the reaction mixture. The mixture was stirred at 0-10° C. for 1 hour to generate a crystalline product. The crystalline product was collected by filtration, washed with water (300 mL×3), and dried to give 122 (247 g, yield=69%) as pale solid.

Compound 123

Compound 122 (247 g, 875.6 mmol) was dissolved in trifluoroacetic acid (800 mL), and CH₃SO₃H (127 mL) was added in one portion. The reaction was heated to reflux for 3 h, then cooled to room temperature and concentrated. Aqueous 2.5 N NaOH was added to adjust the pH of the solution to 7, which caused precipitation. The resultant solid was crushed, was stirred vigorously for 1 h, and was then filtered. The solid was collected and dried under high vacuum to afford 123 (148 g, yield=88%) as brown solid.

Compound 124

Pyridine (145 ml) was added to a suspension of 123 (148 g, 770.15 mmol) in acetic anhydride (800 ml). The reaction mixture was heated to 120° C. for 3 h, during which time the solid dissolved. The reaction mixture was allowed to cool, then poured into ice-water. The reaction mixture was stirred for 1 h, then the solid was removed by filtration and dried over to give 124 (100 g, yield=55.4%) as brown solid.

Compound 125

N,N-dimethylformamide (1 mL, cat.) was added to a solution of 124 (100 g, 426.97 mmol) in SOCl₂ (300 mL) and the reaction mixture was heated to reflux for 1.5 h. Upon cooling to room temperature, the SOCl₂ was removed in vacuo and azeotroped with toluene (100 mL×3) to give 125.

Compound 126 (4-Chloro-6-Methoxy-Quinazoline-7-ol)

Residue 125 was diluted with dichloromethane, a solution of 10% NH₃/methanol was added, and the mixture heated at 80° C. for 10 minutes. Upon cooling to room temperature, the solvent was removed, water was added and the pH of the mixture was adjusted to 7 with HCl (4 N). The resultant precipitate was collected by filtration and dried in vacuo to give 126, 4-chloro-6-methoxy-quinazolin-7-ol (47 g, two steps, yield=52.3%) as a pale solid.

Example 10: Preparation of Compound 21

Compound 18

To a solution of 2-oxa-7-azaspiro[3.5]nonane hemioxalate (18.6 g, 146.46 mmol) in acetonitrile (200 mL) was added 3-chloropropan-1-ol (20.76 g, 219.69 mmol), potassium carbonate (40.42 g, 292.91 mmol), and potassium iodide (24.31 g, 146.46 mmol). The mixture was heated to reflux and stirred overnight. The reaction solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (200 mL) and filtered to remove the solid. The filtrate was concentrated to dryness and the residue was dissolved in water and lyophilized to dryness to give 18 (17 g, Yield=62.7%) as a yellow oil.

Compound 19

4-Chloro-6-methoxy-quinazolin-7-ol (9.5 g, 45.11 mmol), 18 (10.03 g, 54.13 mmol), and triphenylphosphine (23.73 g, 90.22 mmol) were stirred in tetrahydrofuran (300 mL) and cooled in an ice bath. Dibenzyl azodicarboxylate (20.75 g, 90.22 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (80 mL) was added dropwise. The reaction mixture stirred at room temperature for 2 h. The reaction solution was diluted with ethyl acetate (300 mL), washed with water (200 mL×2). The organic phase concentrated to give the crude product as a brown oil. Column chromatography of the crude product gave 19 (5.1 g, Yield=29.9%) as a yellow solid.

Compound 20

1,3-Dimethyl-1H-pyrazole-5-carboxylic acid (0.70 g, 5.0 mmol) was suspended in dichloromethane (10 mL). Oxalyl chloride (1.0 mL, 11.6 mmol) was added followed by catalytic amount of N,N-dimethylformamide (1 drop). The solution was stirred for 2 h. The solvent was removed and the residue was re-dissolved in dichloromethane (10 mL). The solvent was again removed leaving an oil. The material was dissolved in dichloromethane (5 mL) and added to the solution of 4-amino-3-methylphenol (0.62 g, 5.0 mmol) and triethylamine (1.0 mL, 7.0 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (30 mL). The solution was stirred for 3 h and then evaporated. The residue was treated with aqueous sodium bicarbonate. The solid was filtered off and washed with water. Drying in high vacuum afforded 20 as an off white solid (1.20 g).

Compound 21

Compound 19 (0.38 g, 1.0 mmol), N-(4-hydroxy-2-methylphenyl)-1,3-dimethyl-1H-pyrazole-5-carboxamide (0.25 g, 1.0 mmol) and potassium carbonate (0.41 g, 3.0 mmol) were suspended in N,N-dimethylformamide (5 mL). The solution was heated to 90° C. for 4 h. The solvent was evaporated and the residue was diluted with water. The solid was filtered off and dried in high vacuum. Purification by reverse phase flash chromatography gave 21 as off white solid (338 mg) m/z: 587.3 [M+H]⁺. ¹H NMR: (DMSO-d6): δ 9.81 (s, 1H), 8.55 (s, 1H), 7.66-7.61 (m, 2H), 7.55 (s, 1H), 7.39 (d, J=8.5 Hz, 1H), 7.36 (s, 1H), 7.24 (d, J=2.5 Hz, 1H), 7.16 (dd, J=8.5 Hz, 2.5 Hz, 1H), 6.83 (s, 1H), 4.27 (s, 4H), 4.22 (t, J=6.5 Hz, 2H), 4.01 (s, 3H), 3.98 (s, 3H), 2.41 (t, J=6.5 Hz, 2H), 2.33-2.21 (m, 4H), 2.25 (s, 3H), 2.21 (s, 3H), 1.99-1.93 (m, 2H), 1.80-1.70 (m, 4H).

Example 11: Preparation of Compound 25

Compound 22

Compound 126 of Example 9 (36.5 g, 174.14 mmol), 1-bromo-3-chloropropane (123.5 mL) and potassium carbonate (239.9 g, 1738.11 mmol) were suspended in N,N-dimethylformamide (1500 mL) and stirred at room temperature for 16 h. The suspension was filtered and the filtrate was concentrated. The residue was diluted with ethyl acetate (1000 mL) and water (1000 mL). The aqueous phase was extracted with ethyl acetate (500 mL×2) and the combined organic phase was washed with water (1000 mL) and brine (500 mL×6), dried over Na₂SO₄ and concentrated in vacuum to give 22 (38.9 g, Yield=78.1%) as a brown solid.

Compound 23

2-oxa-7-azaspiro[3.5]nonane (16.6 g, 129 mmol), potassium carbonate (29.7 g, 215.2 mmol) and sodium iodide (9.7 g, 64.92 mmol) were added to a solution of 22 (12.3 g, 42.9 mmol) in N,N-dimethylformamide (1500 mL), stirred at 70° C. for 16 h under N₂. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and water (2 L) was added. After extracted with ethyl acetate, the combined organic phase was washed with water (500 mL×2), brine (300 ml×6) and dried over Na₂SO₄. The solution was concentrated in vacuum to give a brown solid. The brown solid was stirred in a mixture of hexane/ethyl acetate (200 mL/4 mL) for 2 h, filtered and dried to give 23 (13.7 g, Yield=84.6%) as a light brown solid.

Compound 24

Potassium tert-butoxide (4.7 g, 42 mmol) and 4-amino-3-chlorophenol.HCl (3.1 g, 16.8 mmol) were added to a solution of 23 (5.3 g, 14 mmol) in DMA (30 mL). The solution was stirred at 98° C. overnight under N₂. Cooled to room temperature and poured into ice water (100 mL) when the reaction was completed. The solution was extracted with ethyl acetate (100 mL×3). The combined organic phase was washed by brine (100 mL×5), dried over Na₂SO₄, and concentrated to give a brown solid. The crude product was purified by gel-silica (methanol:dichloromethane=1:20) to afford 24 (4.4 g, Yield=64.7%) as a brown solid.

Compound 25

A mixture of 2-fluoro-5-methylaniline (4.6 g, 36.8 mmol) and triethylamine (7.4 g, 73.6 mmol) which was dissolved in toluene (70 mL) was added dropwise to a solution of triphosgene (11.2 g, 40.5 mmol) in toluene (80 mL) at 0° C. Then the reaction was stirred for 3 h at room temperature and then 2 h at 80° C. Toluene was removed by concentrated. To the resultant residue was added 24 (4.4 g, 9.1 mmol) in toluene (80 mL) and the reaction mixture was stirred overnight at 70° C. The reaction mixture was then cooled to room temperature. and poured into ice water (100 mL) and stirred for 2 h. The solid was filtered and washed with water (30 mL×3) and ethyl acetate (30 mL), dried in Na2SO4, and concentrated to give 25 (2.9 g, Yield=50.2%) as an off-white solid. m/z 635.4 [M+H]⁺. ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 400 MHz): δ 1.94 (4H, bs); 2.16 (2H, bs); 2.43 (9H, m); 4.01 (3H, s); 4.22 (2H, t); 4.43 (4H, s); 6.48 (1H, d); 6.85 (1H, m); 6.95 (1H, dd); 7.12 (1H, dd); 7.22 (1H, d); 7.34 (1H, s); 7.45 (4H, m); 7.89 (1H, m); 8.30 (1H, d); 8.50 (1H, d).

Example 12: Preparation of Compound 30

Compound 26

A solution of 4-amino-3-chlorophenol HCl (828 mg, 4.6 mmol) and sodium hydride (60% dispersion in mineral oil, 368 mg, 9.2 mmol) in dry N,N-dimethylformamide (10 mL) was sparged with N₂. Potassium carbonate (1.27 g, 9.2 mmol) was added, followed by 7-benzyloxy-4-chloro-6-methoxy-quinoline (932 mg, 3.12 mmol). The reaction was stirred at 100° C. for 17 h, then cooled to room temperature and the solvent removed by rotary evaporator. Crude residue was suspended in water and extracted with ethyl acetate (100 mL×4). The combined organics were dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and the solvent evaporated. Final product was precipitated from water, filtered, and dried under high vacuum to yield 1.37 g (3.37 mmol, Yield=93%) of 26 as purple solid.

Compound 27

A solution of 26 (712 mg, 1.75 mmol) and triethylamine (978 μL, 7.01 mmol) in dichloromethane (20 mL) was cooled to −78° C. Phosgene (15% in toluene, 1.27 mL, 1.93 mmol) was added dropwise and the reaction stirred for 30 minutes, then at room temperature for 30 minutes. A solution of 3-amino-5-methyl isoxazole (516 mg, 5.26 mmol) in dichloromethane (10 mL) was added dropwise and the reaction stirred overnight. The solvent was removed by rotary evaporator and the crude co-evaporated with diethyl ether (50 mL). Product was precipitated from diethyl ether and filtered, then suspended in saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate and filtered. The product was dried under high vacuum to yield 937 mg (1.75 mmol, Yield=99%) of 27 as a chocolate brown powder.

Compound 28

Compound 27 (806 mg, 1.52 mmol) was dissolved in methanol (200 mL) and 100 mL loaded into a Parr vessel. Palladium hydroxide (200 mg, 50% weight) was added and the reaction agitated under 50 psi of H₂. Reaction was stopped after 2 h and the slurry filtered through CELITE. Filtrate was evaporated, then co-evaporated with dichloromethane (50 mL) and diethyl ether (50 mL) respectively. Product was precipitated from 10:1 hexane/dichloromethane, filtered, and dried under high vacuum. After repeating procedure with remaining starting material, 625 mg (1.42 mmol, Yield=93%) of 28 was isolated as copper brown solid.

Compound 29

Compound 28 (310 mg, 0.7 mmol) and potassium carbonate (292 mg, 2.11 mmol) were suspended in dry N,N-dimethylformamide (5 mL). 1-bromo-3-chloropropane (208 μL, 2.11 mmol) was added dropwise and the reaction stirred at 50° C. for 2 h. The solvent was removed by rotary evaporator and the crude residue partitioned between saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate and ethyl acetate. The organics were separated, dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and the solvent evaporated. The product residue was loaded onto a silica plug and washed first with dichloromethane (60 mL) followed by 20% methanol/ethyl acetate (120 mL). Product was recovered from the methanol/ethyl acetate fraction and the solvent evaporated. 29 was co-evaporated with dichloromethane and used in the next reaction without further purification.

Compound 30 Compound 29 (210 mg, 0.41 mmol), potassium carbonate (280 mg, 2.03 mmol), and potassium bromide (97 mg, 0.81 mmol) were suspended in dry N,N-dimethylformamide (5 mL). 2-Oxa-7-azaspiro[3.5]nonane hemioxalate was added and the reaction stirred at 80° C. for 5 h. Solvent was removed by rotary evaporator and the crude residue partitioned between saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate and 10% methanol/ethyl acetate. The organics were separated, dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and the solvent evaporated. Residue was co-evaporated with dichloromethane (50 mL×2) and the crude product dried under high vacuum. Final purification was achieved by prep LC. 6 mg (0.01 mmol, Yield=2%) of light brown powder 30 was isolated. m/z 608.2 [M]. ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 400 MHz): δ 1.89 (4H, m); 2.12 (2H, m); 2.43 (3H, s); 2.53 (2H, t); 4.02 (3H, s); 4.25 (2H, t); 4.42 (4H, s); 6.04 (1H, bs); 6.50 (1H, d); 7.14 (1H, dd); 7.26 (1H, s); 7.42 (1H, s); 7.49 (1H, s); 8.38 (1H, d); 8.50 (1H, d).

Example 13: Preparation Compound 35

Compound 31

To a solution of 126 of Example 9 (3.0 g, 14.25 mmol) and ethyl-4-bromobutyrate (4.53 g, 28.49 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (30 mL) was added K₂CO₃ (5.90 g, 42.74 mmol). The mixture was stirred at room temperature overnight. The reaction mixture was diluted with water (60 mL) and extracted with ethyl acetate (100 mL×2). The combined organic phase was concentrated to give the crude product as a yellow solid. The crude product was purified by silica gel column (hexanes:ethyl acetate=10:1 to 2:1) to give 3.7 g (yield=80%) of 31 as a yellow solid.

Compound 32

To a solution of 31 (2 g, 6.16 mmol) and 4-amino-3-chlorophenol.HCl (1.55 g, 8.62 mmol) in acetonitrile (20 mL) was added Cs₂CO₃ (6.02 g, 18.47 mmol). The mixture was stirred at 50° C. for 2 h. TLC showed that 31 was consumed. The solid was removed by filtration and the filtrate was concentrated under vacuum to give a brown solid. The brown solid was dissolved in ethyl acetate (50 mL) and washed with water (50 mL×2). The organic phase was concentrated and the residue was purified by silica column (hexanes:ethyl acetate=5:1 to 1:1) to give 1.7 g (yield=63.9%) of 32 as a purple solid.

Compound 33

A solution of 32 (6.00 g, 13.89 mmol) and 10 (6.00 g, crude) in dichloromethane (200 mL) was stirred at room temperature for 4 h. The reaction mixture was washed with water (100 mL×2). The organic layer was concentrated under vacuum to give a residue, which was purified by silica column (dichloromethane to dichloromethane:methanol=25:1) to give 6.50 g (yield=84.2%) of 33 as a purple solid.

Compound 34

To a solution of 33 (8.60 g, 15.47 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (400 mL) was added aqueous LiOH solution (1.0 N, 77.34 mL) dropwise. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature overnight. The reaction mixture was concentrated to dryness to give 9.6 g of crude product 34 as a brown solid. The crude product was used directly in the next step without further purification.

Compound 35

To a solution of 34 (400 mg, 0.76 mmol) in N,N-dimethylformamide (5 mL) was added 1-hydroxybenzotriazole (204 mg, 1.52 mmol), 12 (144 mg, 1.14 mmol), diisopropylethyl amine (293 mg, 2.27 mmol) and N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-N′-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (290 mg, 1.52 mmol) sequentially. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature overnight. The reaction mixture was poured into water (50 mL) and grey solid precipitated out. The solid was collected by filtration. This solid was purified by silica column (dichloromethane to dichloromethane:methanol=10:1) to give a pink solid. This pink solid was dissolved in 5 mL of dichloromethane:methanol (5:1). Dichloromethane was removed under vacuum and a pink solid precipitated out from methanol. The pink solid was collected by filtration to give 200 mg (yield=41.4%) of 35. m/z 637.4 [M+H]⁺. ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 400 MHz): δ 1.72 (4H, m); 2.28 (2H, t); 2.42 (3H, s); 2.60 (2H, t); 4.04 (3H, s); 4.27 (2H, t); 4.29 (4H, q); 6.01 (1H, s); 7.18 (1H, dd); 7.34 (2H, s); 7.50 (1H, s); 8.40 (1H, d); 8.62 (2H, s)

Example 14: Preparation of Compound 38

Compound 36

A mixture of 32 (900 mg, 2.08 mmol) and 10 (900 mg, crude) in toluene (15 mL) was stirred at 70° C. for 3 h. The reaction mixture was concentrated under vacuum to give a residue. The residue was diluted with dichloromethane (50 mL) and washed with water (50 mL×2). The organic layer was concentrated and the residue was purified by silica column (dichloromethane:methanol=50:1 to 10:1) to give 1.15 g (yield=94.7%) of 36 as a purple solid.

Compound 37

To a solution of 36 (1.15 g, 1.97 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (55 mL) was added aqueous LiOH solution (1N, 13.31 mL) dropwise. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature overnight. The reaction solution was concentrated to dryness to give 9.6 g of the crude product 37 as a brown solid. The crude product was used directly for the next step without further purification.

Compound 38

To the solution of 37 (1.20 g, 2.16 mmol) in N,N-dimethylformamide (12 mL) was added 1-hydroxybenzotriazole (580 mg, 4.32 mmol), 2-oxa-7-azaspiro[3.5]nonane (410 mg, 3.24 mmol), diisopropylethylamine (840 mg, 6.49 mmol) and N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-N′-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (830 mg, 4.32 mmol) sequentially. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature overnight and then was poured into water (100 mL). Gray solid precipitated out and was collected by filtration. This solid was purified by silica column (dichloromethane to dichloromethane:methanol=10:1) to give 1.07 g (yield=74.5%) of 38 as a pink solid. m/z 664.4 [M+H]⁺. ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 400 MHz): δ 1.83 (4H, dt); 2.10 (2H, m); 2.29 (3H, s); 2.61 (2H, t); 3.42 (2H, t); 3.54 (2H, t); 4.03 (3H, s); 4.27 (2H, t); 4.45 (4H, q); 6.85 (1H, m); 6.95 (1H, m); 6.99 (1H, s); 7.17 (1H, dd); 7.29 (2H, d); 7.36 (1H, s); 7.50 (1H, s); 7.89 (1H, m); 8.32 (1H, d); 8.62 (1H, s).

Example 15: Preparation of Compounds 43A/43B

Compound 39:

A solution of 26 (812 mg, 2 mmol) and triethylamine (1.12 mL, mmol) in dichloromethane (20 mL) was cooled to −78° C. Phosgene (15% in toluene, 1.45 mL, 2.2 mmol) was added dropwise and the reaction stirred for 30 minutes, then at room temperature for 30 minutes. A solution of 2-fluoro-5-methylaniline (677 μL, 6 mmol) in dichloromethane (10 mL) was added dropwise and the reaction stirred overnight. The solvent was removed by rotary evaporator and the crude co-evaporated with diethylether (50 mL). Product was precipitated from diethylether and filtered, then suspended in saturated aqueous NaHCO₃ and filtered. The product was dried under high vacuum to yield 1.05 g (1.88 mmol, 94%) of 39 as light brown solid.

Compound 40:

Compound 39 (500 mg, 0.9 mmol) was dissolved in 4:1 MeOH/THF (125 mL) and loaded into a Parr vessel. Pd(OH)₂ (200 mg, 40% weight) was added and the reaction agitated under 50 psi of H₂. Reaction was stopped after 90 minutes and the slurry filtered through CELITE. Filtrate was evaporated, then co-evaporated with dichloromethane (50 mL). Product was precipitated from 10:1 hexane/dichloromethane and filtered. Significant dechlorination was observed. Procedure was repeated with another batch of X (534 mg, 0.96 mmol) and less Pd(OH)₂ (105 mg, 20% weight). Dechlorination was still observed. Precipitates were combined and dried under high vacuum to yield 745 mg (1.6 mmol, Y=86%) of 40A/40B as light brown solid (65:35 chlorinated/dechlorinated).

Compound 41:

40 (643 mg, 1.38 mmol) and ethyl 4-bromobutyrate (491 mg, 2.5 mmol) were dissolved in dry N,N-dimethylformamide (12 mL). K₂CO₃ (380 mg, 2.75 mmol) was added and the reaction stirred at 45° C. overnight. Solvent was removed by rotary evaporator and the residue co-evaporated with dichloromethane (50 mL). Product was precipitated from water, filtered, and dried under high vacuum to yield 587 mg (1.01 mmol, Y=73%) 41A/41B as brown powder.

Compound 42:

NaOH pellets (400 mg, 10 mmol) were dissolved in 1:1 THF/H₂O (10 mL). 41 (1.13 g, 2 mmol) was added and the reaction stirred for 4 hours. Solvent was removed by rotary evaporator and the resulting crust suspended in H₂O. Solution was acidified to pH 1 using concentrated HCl. Slurry was filtered to yield sticky hygroscopic solid. Solid was frozen in −80° C. freezer to yield 472 mg (0.85 mmol, 43%) of 42A/42B as dark brown powder, which was used in the next reaction without further purification.

Compound 43:

2-Oxa-7-azaspiro[3.5]nonane hemioxalate (221 mg, 1.01 mmol) was stirred in water (3 mL) with Amberjet 4200 (3 g, 12 mmol). After 90 minutes, the slurry was filtered and the filtrate lyophilized to yield the free base as white foam. Free base, 42A/42B (373 mg, 0.68 mmol), and N,N-dimethylpyridin-4-amine (83 mg, 0.68 mmol) were dissolved in dry N,N-dimethylformamide (10 mL). N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-N′-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (169 mg, 0.88 mmol) was added and the reaction stirred overnight. Solvent was removed by rotary evaporator and the product precipitated from saturated aqueous NaHCO₃. Slurry was filtered and washed with hexane to yield a very sticky gum, which was dried under high vacuum to yield 379 mg (0.57 mmol, 84%) chocolate brown powder (3:1 chlorinated/dechlorinated). Purification and separation of final products was achieved by prep LC.

Isolated 78 mg (0.12 mmol) of 43A as white solid. m/z 663.3 [M]. ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 400 MHz): δ 1.85 (4H, m); 2.28 (2H, m); 2.35 (3H, s); 3.42 (2H, t); 3.54 (2H, t); 4.02 (3H, s); 4.25 (2H, t); 4.45 (4H, q); 6.48 (1H, d); 6.86 (1H, m); 6.99 (1H, dd); 7.08 (1H, s); 7.13 (1H, dd); 7.21 (1H, d); 7.31 (1H, s); 7.43 (1H, s); 7.50 (1H, s); 7.89 (1H, m); 8.30 (1H, d); 8.49 (1H, d). Isolated 19 mg (0.03 mmol) of 43B as white solid. m/z 629.3 [M+H]⁺. ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 400 MHz): δ 1.85 (4H, dt); 2.28 (5H, m); 2.58 (2H, t); 3.41 (2H, t); 3.53 (2H, t); 4.00 (3H, s); 4.21 (2H, m); 4.44 (4H, q); 6.34 (1H, d); 6.74 (1H, m); 6.86 (1H, t); 6.99 (2H, d); 7.44 (1H, s); 7.51 (3H, m); 7.91 (1H, d); 8.42 (1H, d).

Example 16: Preparation of Compound 48

Compound 44

To a solution of 3-oxetanol (21.0 g, 283.80 mmol) and 3-(phenylmethoxy)-1-propanol (65 g, 283.80 mmol) in anhydrous N,N-dimethylformamide (200 mL) was added NaI (8.51 g, 56.76 mmol) and NaH (29.3 g, 709.50 mmol, 60% in mineral oil). The resulting suspension was stirred at room temperature overnight. The reaction mixture was cooled to 00° C. and quenched with water (200 mL), followed by 6 N HCl (200 mL). The mixture was extracted with ethyl acetate (300 mL×2) and the combined organic phases were concentrated in vacuo to afford the crude product as a brown oil. The crude product was purified by silica column (petroleum ether:ethyl acetate=25:1 to 10:1) to give 30 g (yield=47.6%) of 44 as a colorless oil.

Compound 45

To a solution of 44 (30.0 g, 135.14 mmol) in ethanol (400 mL) was added Pd/C (3.0 g), then this mixture was stirred at room temperature under H₂ (1 atm) for 48 h. The reaction mixture was filtered through a pad of CELITE to remove the solid. The filtrate was concentrated under reduced pressure to give 16 g (yield=89.7%) of 45 as a colorless oil.

Compound 46

To a solution of 45 (30.0 g, 142.45 mmol), Compound 126 of Example 9 (22.56 g, 170.94 mmol) and triphenyl phosphine (74.64 g, 284.90 mmol) in dry tetrahydrofuran (800 mL) was added diisopropyl azodicarboxylate (57.55 g, 284.90 mmol) in dry tetrahydrofuran (100 mL) dropwise at 0° C. After addition, the temperature of the reaction mixture was increased to room temperature and stirred for 3 h. The reaction mixture was concentrated in vacuo to give a residue. The residue was diluted with ethyl acetate (1.0 L) and washed with water (500 mL×2). The organic phase was concentrated to give crude product as a brown residue. The crude product was purified by silica column (petroleum ether:ethyl acetate=5:1 to 1:1) to give 48.9 g (yield=105.7%) of 46 as light yellow solid (this product contained triphenylphosphine oxide and was used directly in the next step without further purification).

Compound 47

A mixture of 46 (48.90 g, 150.55 mmol), 7 (13.55 g 75.28 mmol) and Cs₂CO₃ (49.05 g, 150.55 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (500 mL) was stirred at 50° C. overnight. The reaction mixture was diluted with ethyl acetate (500 mL) and washed with water (500 mL×2) and brine (500 mL) successively. The organic layer was dried with Na₂SO₄ and concentrated to dryness. The residue was purified by silica column (dichloromethane:methanol=50:2) to give 25.2 g (yield=38.8%) of 47 as a brown solid.

Compound 48

A mixture of 47 (9 g, 20.84 mmol) and 10 (9 g crude) in toluene (100 mL) was stirred at 70° C. for 3 h. The reaction mixture was concentrated in vacuo and the residue was diluted with dichloromethane (200 mL) and washed with water (100 mL×2). The organic layer was concentrated and the residue was purified by silica column (dichoromethane:methanol=50:1 to 10:1) to give 6 g of solid. The solid was washed with toluene (20 mL) to give 5.1 g (yield=42%) of 48 as an off-white solid. m/z 583.3 [M+H]⁺. ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 400 MHz): δ 2.18 (2H, m); 2.30 (3H, s); 3.59 (2H, t); 4.04 (3H, s); 4.30 (2H, t); 4.59 (3H, m); 4.79 (2H, t); 6.77 (1H, m); 6.88 (1H, m); 7.18 (1H, dd); 7.26 (1H, s); 7.35 (1H, s); 7.52 (1H, s); 7.60 (2H, d); 7.93 (1H, d); 8.31 (1H, d); 8.63 (1H, s).

Example 17: Preparation of Compound 49

A mixture of 47 (2.40 g, 5.56 mmol) and 7 (2.40 g crude) in dichloromethane (30 mL) was stirred at room temperature for 5 h. The reaction mixture was diluted with dichloromethane (200 mL) and washed with water (100 mL). The organic layer was concentrated and the residue was purified by silica column (dichloromethane:methanol=100:1 to 10:1) to give 1.15 g (yield=37.2%) of 49 as a pink solid. m/z 556.3 [M+H]⁺. ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 400 MHz): δ 2.19 (2H, m); 2.43 (3H, s); 3.59 (2H, t); 4.04 (3H, s); 4.31 (2H, t); 4.58 (3H, m); 4.79 (2H, m); 5.99 (1H, s); 7.19 (1H, dd); 7.26 (2H, d); 7.51 (1H, s); 8.42 (1H, d); 8.64 (1H, s).

Example 18: Preparation of Compound 50

Compound 50

A solution of diisopropyl azodicarboxylate (174 mg, 0.86 mmol) was added to a solution of compound 40A of Example 15 (230 mg, 0.50 mmol), 2-(oxetan-3-yloxy)ethanol (112 mg, 0.85 mmol) prepared in accordance with the process for 45 in Example 16, and triphenyl phosphine (224 mg, 0.85 mmol) in dry N,N-dimethylformamide (3 mL) at 0° C. After addition, the temperature of the reaction mixture was increased to room temperature and stirred for 8 h. The solvent was evaporated and the residue was partitioned between sodium bicarbonate and dichloromethane with 10% methanol. The organic solution was separated and dried with magnesium sulfate. The solvent was evaporated. The residue was dissolved in dichloromethane and applied on a pad of silica. The pad was eluted with dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, ethyl acetate with 5% methanol and ethyl acetate with 10% methanol. The fractions containing product (Rf=0.5 in ethyl acetate with 10% methanol) were combined and evaporated leaving a yellow oil. Final purification was achieved by prep LC. Isolated 36 mg (0.07 mmol, yield=13%) of 50 as white solid. m/z 583.2 [M+H]⁺. ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 400 MHz): δ 2.21 (2H, m); 2.35 (3H, s); 3.60 (2H, t); 4.02 (3H, s); 4.32 (2H, t); 4.61 (3H, m); 4.77 (2H, t); 6.50 (1H, d); 6.88 (2H, m); 7.00 (1H, dd); 7.15 (2H, m); 7.25 (1H, d); 7.47 (1H, s); 7.50 (1H, s); 7.86 (1H, d); 8.30 (1H, d); 8.51 (1H, d).

Example 19: Preparation of Compound 52

Compound 51

A solution of 4-chloro-6,7-dimethoxyquinazoline (7.23 g, 30 mmol) in dry N,N-dimethylformamide (72 mL) was sparged with N₂ during the sequential addition of NaH (3.6 g of 60% dispersion in mineral oil, 90 mmol), potassium carbonate (12.42 g, 90 mmol), and 4-amino-3-chlorophenol.HCl (8 g, 44 mmol). Reaction was heated to 100° C. and stirred for 2 hours. Solution was cooled to room temperature and the solvent evaporated by rotary evaporator. Remaining residue was co-evaporated with dichloromethane (50 mL) and the remaining crust suspended in water, sonicated, and filtered. Product was dried under high vacuum to give 5.88 g (17.76 mmol, yield=59%) purple powder 51, which was used in the next reaction without further purification.

Compound 52

Triethylamine (168 μL, 1.21 mmol) was added to a solution of 51 (100 mg, 0.3 mmol) in dichloromethane (10 mL) and cooled to −78° C. Phosgene (218 μL of 15% solution in toluene, 0.33 mmol) was added dropwise and the reaction stirred for 30 minutes at −78° C., then at room temperature for 30 minutes. 2-(Morpholin-4-ylmethyl)aniline (175 mg, 0.91 mmol) was added and the reaction stirred overnight. Solvent was evaporated by rotary evaporator, then co-evaporated with diethyl ether (20 mL). Crude solid was precipitated from diethyl ether and purified by reverse phase flash chromatography to yield 86 mg (0.16 mmol, yield=52%) of 52 as pale pink solid. m/z 550.2 [M]. ¹H-NMR (DMSO-d6, 500 MHz): b (4H, s); 3.54 (2H, s); 3.58 (4H, s); 3.98 (6H, d); 7.01 (1H, t); 7.25 (2H, t); 7.32 (1H, dd); 7.40 (1H, s); 7.56 (1H, s); 7.58 (1H, d); 7.88 (1H, d); 7.97 (1H, d); 8.58 (1H, s); 8.75 (1H, s); 9.09 (1H, s).

Example 20: Preparation of Compound 53

Compound 53

Triethylamine (168 μL, 1.21 mmol) was added to a solution of 51 (100 mg, 0.3 mmol) in dichloromethane (10 mL) and cooled to −78° C. Phosgene (218 μL of 15% solution in toluene, 0.33 mmol) was added dropwise and the reaction stirred for 30 minutes at −78° C., then at room temperature for 30 minutes. 4-(Morpholin-4-ylmethyl)aniline (175 mg, 0.91 mmol) was added and the reaction stirred overnight. Solvent was evaporated by rotary evaporator, then co-evaporated with diethyl ether (20 mL). Crude solid was precipitated from diethyl ether and purified by reverse phase flash chromatography to yield 25 mg (0.05 mmol, yield=15%) of 53 as pale pink solid. m/z 550.2 [M]. ¹H-NMR (DMSO-d6, 500 MHz): b (4H, s); 3.40 (2H, s); 3.57 (4H, s); 3.98 (6H, d); 7.23 (2H, d); 7.29 (1H, dd); 7.40 (1H, s); 7.43 (2H, d); 7.55 (1H, m); 8.22 (1H, d); 8.36 (1H, s); 8.57 (1H, s); 9.40 (1H, s).

Example 21: Preparation of Compound 54

Compound 54

Triethylamine (168 μL, 1.21 mmol) was added to a solution of 51 (100 mg, 0.3 mmol) in dichloromethane (10 mL) and cooled to −78° C. Phosgene (218 μL of 15% solution in toluene, 0.33 mmol) was added dropwise and the reaction stirred for 30 minutes at −78° C., then at room temperature for 30 minutes. 2-[(4-Piperazin-1-yl)methyl]aniline (187 mg, 0.91 mmol) was added and the reaction stirred overnight. Solvent was evaporated by rotary evaporator, then co-evaporated with diethyl ether (20 mL). Crude solid was precipitated from diethyl ether and purified by reverse phase flash chromatography to yield 52 mg (0.09 mmol, yield=31%) of 54 as light brown solid. m/z 563.2 [M]. ¹H-NMR (DMSO-d6, 500 MHz): δ 2.50 (11H, m); 3.59 (2H, s); 3.98 (6H, d); 7.03 (1H, t); 7.27 (1H, t); 7.31 (1H, dd); 7.55 (1H, s); 7.58 (1H, d); 7.86 (1H, d); 8.00 (1H, d); 8.58 (1H, s); 8.80 (1H, s); 9.03 (1H, s).

Example 22: Preparation of Compound 55

Compound 55

Triethylamine (505 μL, 3.63 mmol) was added to a solution of 51 (300 mg, 0.91 mmol) in dichloromethane (30 mL) and cooled to −78° C. Phosgene (661 μL of 15% solution in toluene, 1.00 mmol) was added dropwise and the reaction stirred for 30 minutes at −78° C., then at room temperature for 30 minutes. 4-[(4-Piperazin-1-yl)methyl]aniline (557 mg, 2.72 mmol) was added and the reaction stirred overnight. Solvent was evaporated by rotary evaporator, then co-evaporated with diethyl ether (20 mL). Crude solid was precipitated from diethyl ether, then dissolved in 10% methanol/dichloromethane. Organics were washed with saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate, dried over MgSO₄, and filtered. Solvent was evaporated by rotary evaporator and the product dried under high vacuum to give 311 mg (0.55 mmol, yield=61%) of 55 as a tan solid. m/z 563.2 [M+H]⁺. ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 400 MHz): δ 2.30 (3H, s); 2.48 (8H, bs); 3.49 (2H, t); 4.07 (6H, d); 6.79 (1H, s); 7.13 (1H, s); 7.20 (1H, dd); 7.31 (1H, d); 7.33 (1H, s); 7.34 (3H, s); 7.52 (1H, s); 8.35 (1H, d); 8.63 (1H, s).

Example 23: Preparation of Compound 56

Compound 56

Triethylamine (168 μL, 1.21 mmol) was added to a solution of 51 (100 mg, 0.3 mmol) in dichloromethane (10 mL) and cooled to −78° C. Phosgene (218 μL of 15% solution in toluene, 0.33 mmol) was added dropwise and the reaction stirred for 30 minutes at −78° C., then at room temperature for 30 minutes. A dichloromethane solution of 4-(3-dimethylamino-propoxy)-phenylamine dihydrochloride (243 mg, 0.91 mmol) and triethylamine (254 μL, 1.82 mmol) was added and the reaction stirred overnight. Solvent was evaporated by rotary evaporator, then co-evaporated with diethyl ether (20 mL). Crude solid was precipitated from diethyl ether and purified by reverse phase flash chromatography to yield 39 mg (0.07 mmol, yield=24%) of 56 as tan solid. m/z 552.2 [M]. ¹H-NMR (DMSO-d6, 400 MHz): δ 1.88 (2H, m); 2.27 (6H, s); 3.98 (8H, m); 6.89 (2H, d); 7.29 (1H, dd); 7.38 (3H, m); 8.22 (1H, d); 8.31 (1H, s); 8.57 (1H, s); 9.28 (1H, s).

Example 24: Preparation of Compound 57

Compound 57

Triethylamine (168 μL, 1.21 mmol) was added to a solution of 51 (100 mg, 0.3 mmol) in dichloromethane (10 mL) and cooled to −78° C. Phosgene (218 μL of 15% solution in toluene, 0.33 mmol) was added dropwise and the reaction stirred for 30 minutes at −78° C., then at room temperature for 30 minutes. A dichloromethane solution of 2-[(3-aminobenzyl)(methyl) amino]ethanol dihydrochloride (230 mg, 0.91 mmol) and triethylamine (254 μL, 1.82 mmol) was added and the reaction stirred overnight. Solvent was evaporated by rotary evaporator, then co-evaporated with diethyl ether (20 mL). Crude solid was precipitated from diethyl ether and purified by reverse phase flash chromatography to yield 84 mg (0.16 mmol, yield=52%) of 57 as light brown solid. m/z 538.2 [M]. ¹H-NMR (DMSO-d6, 500 MHz): δ 3.57 (4H, s); 3.96 (8H, m); 6.98 (1H, m); 7.29 (2H, m); 7.40 (2H, m); 7.56 (2H, s); 8.22 (1H, d); 8.39 (1H, s); 8.58 (1H, s); 9.50 (1H, s)

Example 25: Preparation of Compound 58

Compound 58

Triethylamine (168 μL, 1.21 mmol) was added to a solution of 51 (100 mg, 0.3 mmol) in dichloromethane (10 mL) and cooled to −78° C. Phosgene (218 μL of 15% solution in toluene, 0.33 mmol) was added dropwise and the reaction stirred for 30 minutes at −78° C., then at room temperature for 30 minutes. 5-Chloro-2-(4-ethylpiperazin-1-yl)aniline (218 mg, 0.91 mmol) was added and the reaction stirred overnight. Solvent was evaporated by rotary evaporator, then co-evaporated with diethyl amine (20 mL). Crude solid was precipitated from diethyl amine and purified by reverse phase flash chromatography to yield 22 mg (0.04 mmol, yield=12%) of 58 as light brown solid. m/z 597.2 [M]. ¹H-NMR (DMSO-d6, 500 MHz): δ 1.04 (3H, t); 2.42 (2H, d); 2.53 (2H, s); 2.61 (3H, s); 2.82 (4H, s); 3.98 (6H, d); 7.03 (1H, d); 7.17 (1H, d); 7.32 (1H, d); 7.40 (1H, s); 7.57 (1H, d); 8.00 (1H, dd); 8.58 (1H, s); 9.24 (1H, s).

Example 26: Preparation of Compound 59

Compound 59

Triethylamine (335 μL, 2.4 mmol) was added to a solution of 51 (200 mg, 0.6 mmol) in dichloromethane (10 mL) and cooled to −78° C. Phosgene (436 μL of 15% solution in toluene, 0.66 mmol) was added dropwise and the reaction stirred for 30 minutes at −78° C., then at room temperature for 30 minutes. N2, N2-dimethylquinoline-2,6-diamine (339 mg, 1.8 mmol) was added and the reaction stirred overnight. Solvent was evaporated by rotary evaporator, then co-evaporated with diethyl ether (20 mL). Crude solid was precipitated from diethyl ether and purified by reverse phase flash chromatography to yield 82 mg (0.15 mmol, yield=25%) of 59 as dark green solid. m/z 545.2 [M]. ¹H-NMR (DMSO-d6, 500 MHz): δ 3.14 (6H, s); 3.98 (6H, d); 7.06 (1H, d); 7.31 (1H, d); 7.40 (1H, s); 7.54 (3H, d); 7.91 (1H, s); 7.96 (1H, d); 8.25 (1H, d); 8.58 (1H, s).

Example 27: VEGFR2 Binding Assay

A competition binding assay (DISCOVERX KINOMESCAN™) was used to measure the ability of a compound to compete for binding of an immobilized adenosine triphosphosphate (ATP) site directed ligand using a DNA-tagged vascular endothelial growth receptor 2 (VEGFR2) as the target. The ability of the test compound to compete with the immobilized ligand was measured using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) of the DNA tag (Fabian, M. A. et al., 23 Nature Biotechnology 329-336 (2005); Karaman, M. W. et al., 26 Nature Biotechnology 127-132 (2008)).

A VEGFR2 tagged T7 phage strain was prepared in an Escherichia coli (E. coli) derived from the BL21 strain. The E. coli were grown to log-phase, infected with VEGFR2 tagged T7 phage and then incubated with shaking at 32° C. until lysis. The lysate containing the kinase was then centrifuged and filtered to remove cell debris. Affinity resin for the VEGFR2 assay was prepared by treating Streptavidin-coated magnetic beads with a biotinylated small molecule ligand for 30 minutes at room temperature. The beads were blocked with excess biotin and then washed with blocking buffer (SEABLOCK (PIERCE), 1% bovine serum albumin, 0.17% phosphate buffered saline, 0.05% TWEEN 20, 6 mM dithiothreitol). The binding reaction was initiated by combining in a well of a polystyrene 96-well plate, DNA tagged VEGFR2, liganded affinity beads and the serial diluted test compound in 1× binding buffer (20% SEABLOCK, 0.17× phosphate buffered saline, 0.05% TWEEN 20, 6 mM dithiothreitol) in a final volume of 0.135 ml. The assay plates were incubated at room temperature with shaking for 1 hour and then the beads were washed with wash buffer (1× phosphate buffered saline, 0.05% TWEEN 20). The beads were re-suspended in elution buffer (1× phosphate buffered saline, 0.05% TWEEN 20, 0.05 μM non-biotinylated affinity ligand) and incubated at room temperature with shaking for 30 minutes. The VEGFR2 concentration in the eluate was measured using qPCR.

An 11-point dose response curve of 3-fold serial diluted test compound starting at 1 μM was used to determine the VEGFR2 binding constant (K_(d)). The compounds were prepared in 100% DMSO at 100× the final test concentration and the diluted to 1× in the assay for final DMSO concentration of 1%. Binding constants were calculated with standard dose-response curve using the Hill equation with Hill slope set to −1. Curves were fit using a non-linear least square fit with the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm.

TABLE 3 K_(d) values of selected compounds. Compound ID K_(d)  9  0.49 12 3.2 14 37   15 20   16  0.52 17 1   21 58   25 4.8 30  0.69 35 1.3 38 10    43a 31    43b 8.7 48 14   49  0.98 50 25   52 120    53 3.3 54 27   55 1.7 56 2.4 57 1.3 58 10  

Example 28: Novel Compounds Prepared as Mucus Penetrating Particles (MPP)

A number of the compounds of the present invention synthesized in accordance with the preceding Examples were formulated as mucus penetrating particles (MPP). Specifically, Compounds 9, 25, 12, 49, 48, 35, 38, 55, 15, and 16 were each milled in the presence of PLURONIC F127 (F127) to determine whether F127 1) aids particle size reduction to several hundreds of nanometers and 2) physically (non-covalently) coats the surface of generated nanoparticles with a mucoinert coating that would minimize particle interactions with mucus constituents and prevent mucus adhesion.

A milling procedure was employed in which an aqueous dispersion containing coarse drug particles and PLURONIC F127 (F127) was milled with grinding medium until particle size was reduced below 400 nm as measured by dynamic light scattering. Table 4 lists the size of particles and polydispersity index (a measure of the width of the particle size distribution) generated using this technique. In this example suspensions were buffered using DPBS (Dulbecco's Phosphate-Buffered Saline) which yields a suspension that is both isotonic and has a physiologically relevant pH.

TABLE 4 Particle size for compounds formulated as MPP Compound ID Particle Size (nm) Polydispersity Index (PDI)  9 241 0.179 25 203 0.164 12 313 0.165 49 222 0.133 48 167 0.166 35 189 0.223 38 242 0.211 55 190 0.314 15 137 0.247 16 225 0.197

In order to determine whether the generated nanoparticles have reduced interactions with mucins and are therefore able to move within mucus without becoming trapped, particles were incubated with human cervicovaginal mucus (CVM) and observed via dark field microscopy. In a typical experiment, ≤1 μL of the nanoparticle suspension was added to 20 μl of CVM. Observations were made in a minimum of three distinct and randomly selected areas of the CVM sample. Control particles with known behavior were used to qualify the CVM sample as appropriate for the assay. For all compounds (except compound 55) listed in Table 4, mobility in mucus was observed and therefore the nanoparticles were deemed to be effective MPP. Compound 55 is soluble in the low pH of CVM, which is only an issue in the assay, not in intended target sites, such as the eye, which has a neutral pH.

Example 29: Back of the Eye Drug Exposure from Topical Installation of Novel Compound MPP

Pharmacokinetic (PK) studies of Compounds 9, 25, and 12 formulated as MPP in accordance with Example 28 were performed in order to demonstrate that topical installation of MPP formulations of these compounds results in drug exposure at the back of the eye. The typical study design is shown in Table 5. Dutch-belted rabbits were used in these studies.

TABLE 5 Study design for PK evaluation of a novel compound MPP Number of Terminal Animals Dose Frequency/ Timepoints Group Test Article (n/time point) Volume Duration (hours) 1 MPP, 0.5% 4 50 μL BID 5 days 0.5 2 MPP, 0.5% 4 50 μL BID 5 days 1   3 MPP, 0.5% 4 50 μL BID 5 days 2   4 MPP, 0.5% 4 50 μL BID 5 days 4   5 MPP, 0.5% 6 50 μL BID 5 days 8   6 MPP, 0.5% 6 50 μL BID 5 days 12   BID = twice a day

The resulting drug exposure in the back of the eye is shown in Table 6.

TABLE 6 C_(max) and AUC_(0-last) drug concentrations for compounds tested in PK Compound C_(max) Retina C_(max) Choroid AUC_(0-last) Retina AUC_(0-last) ID (nM) (nM) (nM * h) Choroid (nM * h)  9 110 693 915 5400 25  33 574 297 5790 12  39 265 308 2450

The portion of the retina and choroid collected and analyzed was an 8 mm round punch where the macula is located in humans. These results demonstrate that topical installation of novel compound MPP result in drug exposure in the retina and choroid in vivo. Furthermore these results demonstrate the design of the molecule itself affects drug exposure as varying levels of exposure were measured for the different compounds tested.

Draize-Ocular Irritation assessments were also performed during these studies and no irritation was seen for any of the formulations.

EQUIVALENTS AND SCOPE

In the claims articles such as “a,” “an,” and “the” may mean one or more than one unless indicated to the contrary or otherwise evident from the context. Claims or descriptions that include “or” between one or more members of a group are considered satisfied if one, more than one, or all of the group members are present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process unless indicated to the contrary or otherwise evident from the context. The invention includes embodiments in which exactly one member of the group is present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process. The invention includes embodiments in which more than one, or all of the group members are present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process.

Furthermore, the invention encompasses all variations, combinations, and permutations in which one or more limitations, elements, clauses, and descriptive terms from one or more of the listed claims is introduced into another claim. For example, any claim that is dependent on another claim can be modified to include one or more limitations found in any other claim that is dependent on the same base claim. Where elements are presented as lists, e.g., in Markush group format, each subgroup of the elements is also disclosed, and any element(s) can be removed from the group. It should it be understood that, in general, where the invention, or aspects of the invention, is/are referred to as comprising particular elements and/or features, certain embodiments of the invention or aspects of the invention consist, or consist essentially of, such elements and/or features. For purposes of simplicity, those embodiments have not been specifically set forth in haec verba herein. It is also noted that the terms “comprising” and “containing” are intended to be open and permits the inclusion of additional elements or steps. Where ranges are given, endpoints are included. Furthermore, unless otherwise indicated or otherwise evident from the context and understanding of one of ordinary skill in the art, values that are expressed as ranges can assume any specific value or sub-range within the stated ranges in different embodiments of the invention, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit of the range, unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

This application refers to various issued patents, published patent applications, journal articles, and other publications, all of which are incorporated herein by reference. If there is a conflict between any of the incorporated references and the instant specification, the specification shall control. In addition, any particular embodiment of the present invention that falls within the prior art may be explicitly excluded from any one or more of the claims. Because such embodiments are deemed to be known to one of ordinary skill in the art, they may be excluded even if the exclusion is not set forth explicitly herein. Any particular embodiment of the invention can be excluded from any claim, for any reason, whether or not related to the existence of prior art.

Those skilled in the art will recognize or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation many equivalents to the specific embodiments described herein. The scope of the present embodiments described herein is not intended to be limited to the above Description, but rather is as set forth in the appended claims. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that various changes and modifications to this description may be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the present invention, as defined in the following claims. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A compound, having the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: R₁ is hydrogen, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or unsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₂ is hydrogen, substituted carbocyclyl, unsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted heterocyclyl, unsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted aryl, unsubstituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl, or unsubstituted heteroaryl; X is a bond, —O—, —S—, —NR^(A1)—, —C(═))—, branched substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene, unbranched substituted C₁₋₆ alkylene, branched unsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkylene, or unbranched unsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkylene; R^(A1) is hydrogen, substituted acyl, unsubstituted acyl, substituted alkyl, unsubstituted alkyl, or a nitrogen protecting group; Y is N or CH; each occurrence of R₃ is, independently, hydrogen, halogen, substituted acyl, unsubstituted acyl, substituted alkyl, unsubstituted alkyl, substituted alkenyl, unsubstituted alkenyl, substituted alkynyl, unsubstituted alkynyl, substituted carbocyclyl, unsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted heterocyclyl, unsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted aryl, unsubstituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl, unsubstituted heteroaryl, —CN, —NO₂, —OR^(D1a), —N(R^(D1a))₂, —SR^(D1a), —CH₂OR^(D1a), —CH₂N(R^(D1a))₂, CH₂SR^(D1a), —C(═O)R^(D1a), —C(═O)OR^(D1a), —C(═O)SR^(D1a), —C(═O)N(R^(D1a))₂, —C(═S)R^(D1a), —C(═S)OR^(D1a), —C(═O)R^(D1a), —(═O)OR^(D1a), —C(═NR^(D1a))R^(D1a), —C(═NR^(D1a))OR^(D1a), —C(═NR^(D1a))SR^(D1a), or C(═CR^(D1a))N(R^(D1a))₂; each occurrence of R^(D1a) is, independently, hydrogen, substituted alkyl, unsubstituted alkyl, substituted alkenyl, unsubstituted alkenyl, substituted alkynyl, unsubstituted alkynyl, substituted carbocyclyl, unsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted heterocyclyl, unsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted aryl, unsubstituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl, or unsubstituted heteroaryl, or two R^(D1a) groups are joined to form a substituted heterocyclic ring or an unsubstituted heterocyclic ring; Z is substituted aliphatic, unsubstituted aliphatic, substituted heterocyclyl, unsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted aryl, unsubstituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl, unsubstituted heteroaryl, substituted heterocyclylalkyl, unsubstituted heterocyclylalkyl, substituted arylalkyl, unsubstituted arylalkyl, substituted heteroaralkyl, unsubstituted heteroaralkyl, substituted quinolyl, or unsubstituted quinolyl; m is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4; and n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or
 10. 2. The compound of claim 1, wherein: R₁ is hydrogen, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or unsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₂ is heterocyclyl; X is a bond, —O—, or —C(═O)—; each occurrence of R₃ is, independently, hydrogen, F, Cl, Br, I, CN, or OH; Y is CH or N; Z is substituted aliphatic, unsubstituted aliphatic, substituted heterocyclylalkyl, unsubstituted heterocyclylalkyl, substituted aryl, unsubstituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl, unsubstituted heteroaryl, substituted quinolyl, or unsubstituted quinolyl; m is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4; and n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or
 10. 3. The compound of claim 1, wherein: R₁ is hydrogen, substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or unsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R₂ is heterocyclyl; X is a bond, —O—, or —C(═O)—; each occurrence of R₃ is, independently, hydrogen, F, Cl, Br, I, CN, or OH; Y is CH; Z is C₁₋₆ alkyl, substituted heterocyclylalkyl, unsubstituted heterocyclylalkyl, substituted aryl, unsubstituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl, unsubstituted heteroaryl, substituted quinolyl, or unsubstituted quinolyl; m is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4; and n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or
 10. 4. The compound of claim 1, wherein R₂ is


5. The compound of claim 1, wherein R₂ is


6. The compound of claim 1, having a formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.


7. A composition, comprising the compound of claim
 1. 8. A composition, comprising the compound of claim
 2. 9. A composition, comprising the compound of claim
 3. 10. A composition, comprising the compound of claim
 4. 11. A composition, comprising the compound of claim
 5. 12. A composition, comprising the compound of claim
 6. 13. A pharmaceutical composition, comprising the compound of claim 1 and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 14. A pharmaceutical composition, comprising the compound of claim 2 and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 15. A pharmaceutical composition, comprising the compound of claim 3 and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 16. A pharmaceutical composition, comprising the compound of claim 4 and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 17. A pharmaceutical composition, comprising the compound of claim 5 and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 18. A pharmaceutical composition, comprising the compound of claim 6 and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 19. The compound of claim 1, having a formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 20. A composition, comprising the compound of claim
 19. 21. A pharmaceutical composition, comprising the compound of claim 19 and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. 